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IN  MEMQRIAIA 
George  Davidson 
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GEOGRAPHY    MANUAL 


ELEMENTS  AND   GRAMMAR 
SCHOOL 


BY 


ALEXIS  EVERETT  FRYE 

First  Superintendent  of  Schools  of  Cuba.  Author  of  "Child  and 

Nature"  "Brooks  and  Brook  Basins,"  "Elements  of 

Geography,"  "Grammar  School  Geography ," 

"Home  and  School  Atlas"  etc. 


BOSTON,  U.S.A. 

GINN   &   COMPANY,  PUBLISHERS 

QLht  ^enactim  press 

1903 


CONTEXTS. 


-+0+- 


Pages 
Part  I.  —  General  Notes   .......         1-34 

The  suggestions  in  this  part  of  the  Manual  are  appli- 
cable to  both  geographies  of  the  series  —  Elements  and 
Grammar  School,  and  in  general  to  other  subjects,  such 
as  history  and  reading.  These  notes  suggest  how  to 
use  the  material  of  the  book,  —  the  maps,  pictures 
and  text. 

Part  II.  — Elements  of  Geography  Lesson  Notes  .         .       35-78 

In  connection  with  these  special  notes  for  the  Ele- 
ments of  Geography,  teachers  should  read  the  general 
notes  on  pages  1-36. 

Copyright,  1896,  1903 
By  ALP:XIS  EVERETT  FRYE 


ALL  RIGHTS   RESERVED 


11 


TEACHERS'   MANUAL, 


I.     GENERAL   NOTES. 


1.    Ideas  vs.  Words. 

No  wide-awake  teacher  of  to-day  wastes  his  own  time 
and  that  of  his  pupils  by  forcing  them  to  memorize 
the  exact  words  of  a  text-book.  Such  work  is  not 
teaching,  and  is  not  worth  the  smallest  salary  paid  in 
the  poorest  school  district. 

The  pupil  who  studies  the  text  of  a  lesson  and  then 
expresses  the  thoughts  in  his  own  words  becomes  master 
of  the  lesson.  A  pupil  who  merely  recites  parrot-like 
the  words  of  the  text  may  not  have  grasped  a  single 
thought.  Even  if  every  sentence  were  backed  by  the 
proper  thought,  what  a  cruel  waste  of  energy  would 
result  from  trying  to  fix  the  exact  words  in  mind  for  a 
day  or  at  most  for  a  week  ! 

No  teacher  really  believes  in  such  work,  for  no 
teacher  ever  takes  the  trouble  to  force  himself  to  mem- 
orize the  text.  The  teacher  who  drives  his  pupils  to 
this  task  does  not  seem  to  know  how  to  teach  them  to 
grasp  an  author's  meaning.  He  thinks  the  meaning 
must  be  in  the  words  and  that  the  pupils  must  swallow 
them. 

Definitions.  —  Of  what  use  are  definitions  of  hills, 
rivers,  etc.  ?  In  daily  life  do  we  ever  use  them?  Must 
a  child  define  in  order  to  know  ?     Does  he  not  know  a 


M27S050 


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teachers'  manual. 


chair,  a  shoe,  a  horse  ?  —  vet  lias  lie  learned  to  define 
them?     Nay,  he  learns  to  know  such  things  hj*eeit 
or  sensing  (them. 

Among  countless  objects  that  affect  our  life,  why 
should  teachers  select  the  forms  of  land  and  water  and 
claim  that  these  few  can  best  be  known  or  studied 
through  their  definitions  ?  Is  it  because  pupils  can 
hide  ignorance  in  empty  words  and  thus  make  a  good 
showing  in  that  form  of  examination  which  calls  for 
husks  instead  of  grains  of  thought  Let  us  hope  not  ; 
yet  if  it  be  true,  the  number  of  teachers  of  this  class  is 
small,  for  the  thoughtful  teachers  of  to-day  show  by 
their  work  that  they  believe  in  the  study  of  th  — 

not  mere  ivord-sliells. 

A  pupil  should  learn  to  know  a  hill  or  a  plain  by 
studying  the  thing  itself  or  a  good  picture  of  it.  The 
teacher  may  use  various   devices  to  stimulate   careful 

■ 

looking.  Thus,  he  may  tell  the  pupil  to  model,  draw 
or  describe  it  :  and  the  attempt  to  express  in  either  of 
these  wavs  will  lead  to  closer  looking  and  so  to  the 
gaining  of  clearer  mental  pictures. 

Let  us  illustrate  by  a  Irook.  By  one  plan  the  pupil 
will  learn  the  words.  "  A  brook  is  a  small  stream  of 
fresh  water  flowing  over  the  land."'  By  the  other  plan 
he  will  study  the  brook  itself  and  may  discover  the 
following  : 

••  A  brook  is  running  water.  The  water  is  fresh. 
The  brook  winds  about.  Where  the  brook  is  swift  the 
bottom  is  steep.  In  some  places  the  bottom  is  rocky  : 
in  other  places  it  is  muddy.  The  water  nio .  Lowly 
over  the  muddy  bottom.  The  brook  grows  larg 
flows  downward.      In  wide  pans  of  the  brook  the  water 


teachers'  manual. 


moves  slowly  ;  in  narrow  places  it  moves  swiftly.  The 
bottom  of  the  brook  slants  downhill.  The  banks  of  the 
brook  are  in  most  places  nearly  parallel.  The  land 
slopes  down  to  the  brook  on  both  sides  and  holds  it  in 
place."     Etc.,  etc. 

Which  pupil  knows  more  about  a  brook,  the  one  who 
can  recite  the  definition  or  the  one  who  has  learned  the 
above  facts  by  seeing  and  discovering  for  himself? 
Which  pupil  has  gained  the  greater  power  in  the  study  ? 
Which  has  the  knowledge  better  suited  to  his  later  life? 

It  is  claimed  that  the  "  book '  definition  is  better 
worded  than  any  a  pupil  can  make.  What  of  it?  The 
pupil  will  never  use  either.  If  such  definitions  are 
useful,  why  not  also  teach  definitions  of  buttons,  chairs, 
pins  and  countless  other  common  objects  ? 

The  pupil  has  the  right  to  learn  to  describe  objects 
in  his  own  words  in  order  that  he  may  gain  in  power  to 
see  and  express.  What  right  has  the  teacher  to  deprive 
him  of  growth,  merely  that  in  an  examination  he  may 
appear  to  know  what  he  does  not  really  know  ? 

Any  examination  that  calls  for  definitions  of  geograph- 
ical forms,  and  that  does  not  give  opportunity  for  the 
pupil  to  show  his  power  to  see  and  to  think,  is  certainly 
far  behind  the  times.  Which  is  the  better  question, 
"  Define  a  brook,"  or  "  Tell  what  you  know  abou*" 
brooks  and  their  uses  "  ?  Which  tests  the  quality  of 
the  teaching  ?  Which  proves  the  ability  of  the  pupil 
to  see  and  to  think  ? 

The  superintendent  or  school-board  that  gives  broad 
examinations,  based  on  the  pupils'  power  to  think, 
rather  than  on  memory  of  details,  wields  a  powerful 
weapon  in  the  cause  of  good  teaching. 


teachers'  manual. 


2.    Lessons  on  the  Text. 

When  told  that  pupils  should  not  memorize  the 
words  of  the  text,  many  teachers  are  at  a  loss  to  know 
what  to  do  with  the  text.  Pupils,  also,  who  have  been 
dwarfed  by  learning  words,  words,  ivords,  do  not  know 
how  to  study  the  lessons.  They  have  not  been  taught 
how  to  crack  the  shell  and  get  at  the  kernel,  —  in  other 
words,  how  to  get  the  thought  out  of  a  sentence.  This 
work  should  receive  the  teacher's  first  care  in  placing 
before  a  class  any  text,  —  whether  geography,  history, 
arithmetic  or  reading. 

To  illustrate  this  step  in  the  work,  let  us  take  the 
following  text.  Keep  in  mind  that  our  aim  is  to  teach 
pupils  how  to  study  the  lesson,  so  as  to  make  the 
thoughts  their  own. 

The  Land  and  the  Sea. 

Most  parts  of  the  sea  near  the  land  are  shallow. 
Far  from  the  shores  the  sea  is  in  many  places  two 
miles  deep,  and  in  some  places  the  bottom  is  four 
or  five  miles  below  the  surface. 

The  land  and  the  surface  of  the  sea  have  light 
by  day  and  darkness  by  night.  They  have  also 
warm  and  cold  seasons.  No  sunshine  reaches  the 
deep  parts  of  the  sea.  The  deep  water  is  always 
cold  and  dark. 

The  land  has  many  valleys  and  mountains,  but 
a  large  part  of  the  sea-bottom  is  a  great  smooth 
plain. 


teachers'  manual.  5 

The  wind  blows  sand  and  dust  over  the  land 
and  also  makes  waves  on  the  surface  of  the  sea, 
but  the  deep  sea  is  very  still.  Part  of  the  rain 
falling  on  the  land  feeds  brooks  and  rivers,  which 
carry  or  ivash  loose  soil  down  the  slopes  and  help 
to  wear  valleys  in  the  land.  Thus  the  form  of 
the  land  is  slowly  changed. 

Nearly  all  the  soil  which  is  washed  into  the  sea 
settles  in  the  shallow  water  near  the  shores.  The 
smooth  bottom  of  the  deep  sea  hardly  changes  at 
all,  for  there  are  no  streams  to  wear  valleys  in  it, 
and  very  little  soil  from  the  land  reaches  these 
quiet  waters. 

The  following  lesson-plans  suggest  five  different  ways 
of  teaching  pupils  how  to  study  the  text.  Each  of 
these  pla,ns,  and  others  which  the  teacher's  own  inge- 
nuity will  suggest,  may  be  used  to  give  variety  to  the 
work. 

Lesson-Plan  i.  Teacher.  —  "Read  the  lesson  through 
carefully ;  then  take  a  paragraph  at  a  time  and  write 
fully  in  your  own  words  just  what  it  tells.  In  this 
way  write  the  whole  lesson.  Use  words  where  you  can 
that  are  not  the  same  as  those  in  the  book." 

With  these  directions  the  pupils  prepare  their  lesson. 
When  the  time  of  study  is  ended,  they  are  called  on  to 
read  their  work.     Thus  : 

Teacher.  —  "William  may  read  the  first  paragraph  as  he  has 
written  it." 

William.  —  "The  water  along  the  seashore  is  not  deep.  Some 
parts  of  the  ocean  are  four  or  five  miles  deep,  and  many  are  two 
miles.     The  deep  parts  are  mostly  far  from  land." 


6  teachers'  manual. 

Teacher.  —  "  Can  any  one  correct  William's  thought  ?  " 

Albert.  —  "  The  book  does  not  say  that  the  water  is  shallow 
near  all  shores,  but  in  most  places" 

Teacher.  —  "  While  William  is  correcting  his  work,  Albert  may 
tell  how  he  has  written  the  first  sentence." 

Albert.  —  "  Along  nearly  all  shores  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is  not 
far  below  the  surface.  Out  in  the  ocean  the  bottom  is  farther 
from  the  surface  than  it  is  along  the  shore.  Many  parts  of  the 
sea  are  two  miles  deep.  Some  places  are  known  to  be  four  or  five 
miles  deep." 

Teacher.  —  "  Did  Albert  get  the  whole  thought?  " 

Thus  the  lesson  proceeds,  with  the  pupils  noting  any 
omission  or  error  in  thought,  till  the  teacher  is  certain 
that  the  meaning  of  the  paragraph  is  firmly  fixed  in  mind. 
Then  the  next  paragraph  is  taken  up  for  discussion. 

Teacher.  —  "  Mabel  may  read  the  second  paragraph." 
Mabel.  —  "  The  bottom  of  the  deep  sea  is  never  warm,  because 
the  sun  cannot  shine  so  deep  through  the  water.     The  sunshine 
causes  the  seasons,  and  so  there  cannot  be  any  change  from  winter 
to  summer  in  the  deep  water,  nor  from  night  to  day." 

Teacher.  —  "  Can  anybody  add  to  this  paragraph  ?  If  not, 
Edith  may  tell  what  she  has  written  for  the  same." 

Edith.  —  "  The  sun  shines  on  the  surface  of  the  earth  and  gives 
warmth,  but  the  sunlight  cannot  reach  very  deep  in  water.  There 
is  no  sunrise  nor  sunset  seen  down  there,  and  there  are  no  warm 
summer  days.  The  deep  water  is  chilly  and  gloomy." 
Teacher.  —  "  Grace  may  read  her  next  paragraph." 
Grace.  —  "  There  is  level  land  under  much  of  the  sea  .  .  ." 
Etc. 

When  the  pupils  have  discussed  every  paragraph, 
there  can  be  no  doubt  about  the  lesson  being  known. 
While  the  paragraphs  are  being  read,  the  teacher  goes 
quietly  through  the  aisles,  glancing  at  the  work  of  each 
pupil  to  see  that  it  is  carefully  done.  Less  than  half  a 
minute's  examination  of  each  paper  tells  the  story. 


teachers'  manual.  7 

If  the  teacher  wishes  to  impress  still  further  the  facts 
of  the  lesson,  the  pupils  may  be  asked  to  close  their 
books  and  write  from  memory  what  they  have  learned. 
This  may  be  their  language  work  for  the  day.  All  the 
papers  need  not  be  read,  but  the  teacher  may  wish  to 
look  over  the  papers  of  those  who  are  inclined  to  do 
careless  work,  to  see  if  they  should  be  told  to  do  the 
work  again.  A  glance  at  each  paper  will  show  what  is 
needed.  It  is  a  great  waste  of  time  and  energy  to  try 
to  read  all  written  work  of  pupils. 

Lesson-Plan  2.  It  is  an  excellent  plan  to  have  pupils 
study  a  lesson  by  writing  a  list  of  questions  which  shall 
bring  out  the  various  thoughts  in  the  text.  The  pupils 
are  told  to  make  their  own  questions.  If  such  work  is 
new  to  the  pupils  they  may  not  know  how  to  begin. 
In  this  case  the  teacher  may  illustrate  as  follows  : 

Teacher.  —  "  Albert  may  read  the  first  paragraph." 

Albert.  —  "  Most  parts  of  the  sea  near  the  land  .     .     ."  etc. 

Teacher.  —  "  We  do  not  wish  Albert  to  remember  the  exact 
words,  but  we  wish  to  know  whether  he  knows  the  meaning  of 
the  paragraph.  You  may  each  write  a  question  for  Albert  about 
what  he  has  read." 

Grace.  —  "  What  parts  of  the  sea  are  shallow  ?  " 

Mabel.  —  "  Can  you  tell  where  there  are  any  shallow  parts  of 
the  sea?  " 

Edith.  —  "  What  have  you  learned  about  the  sea  near  the  shore?  " 

Ada.  —  "  What  does  shallow  mean  ?  " 

Frank.  —  "  What  do  you  mean  by  the  sea  ?  "    Etc.,  etc. 

Teacher.  —  "  Those  are  all  good  questions,  and  if  Albert  can 
answer  them  he  knows  the  meaning  of  the  words  he  read.  You 
may  all  read  the  rest  of  the  lesson  and  make  questions  about  every 
part,  as  you  have  done  with  the  first  paragraph.  Perhaps  some 
sentences  will  need  two  or  three  questions  to  bring  out  the  full 
meaning. 


8  teachers'  manual. 

"  When  the  time  comes  to  recite  this  lesson,  you  may  ask  each 
other  questions  that  you  have  written.  Be  sure  that  you  can 
answer  your  own  questions  and  then  you  can  feel  quite  sure  that 
you  can  answer  the  questions  which  others  ask." 

With  these  directions  the  pupils  study  the  text,  — 
to  search  out  the  meaning  in  order  to  ask  questions. 
When  a  pupil  has  made  a  good  series  of  questions, 
the  teacher  may  feel  certain  that  the  meaning  of  the 
text  is  clear  and  that  the  pupil  has  made  the  thoughts 
his  own.  The  following  may  suggest  a  form  of  reci- 
tation for  this  lesson : 

Teacher.  —  "  Grace  may  read  her  first  question." 

Grace.  —  "  What  parts  of  the  sea  are  shallow?  " 

Teacher.  —  "  Edith  may  answer." 

Edith.  —  "  The  shallow  parts  are  along  the  shores." 

Teacher.  —  "  Do  all  agree  ?     Does  the  text  say  so  ?  " 

Albert.  —  "  The  text  does  n't  say  that  all  the  shallow  parts  are 
near  the  shores.  It  says  the  sea  is  shallow  near  most  shores,  but 
it  does  not  say  the  sea  is  not  shallow  in  some  places  far  from  the 
land." 

Teacher.  —  "  How  many  of  you  agree  with  Albert?  Does  any- 
one differ?  If  not,  Helen  may  ask  another  question  about  the 
first  sentence  or  the  second." 

Helen.  —  "  What  does  shallow  sea  mean  ?  " 

Teacher.  —  "  Ada  may  answer." 

Ada.  —  "  Shallow  sea  is  sea  that  is  not  deep." 

Teacher.  —  "  Who  can  tell  that  in  another  way?  —  William." 

William.  —  "  In  shallow  water  the  bottom  is  not  far  below  the 
surface." 

Teacher.  —  "  The  book  does  not  tell  how  far  from  the  land  the 
water  is  shallow.  In  some  places  the  shallow  part  reaches  only  a 
mile  or  two  offshore,  but  in  other  places  the  deep  water  begins 
at  about  a  hundred  miles  from  the  land.  When  we  think  of  an 
ocean  thousands  of  miles  wide,  a  hundred  miles  may  be  called 
a  short  distance.     When  we  think  of  parts  of  the   sea  two  or 


teachers'  manual.  9 

more  miles  deep,  we  may  call  the  water  shallow  even  where  it 
is  several  hundred  feet  deep.  We  mean  that  it  is  shallow  com- 
pared with  the  deep  sea.1 

"  Mabel  may  ask  a  question." 

Mabel.  —  "  How  deep  is  the  sea  far  from  the  shores  ?  "  This 
question,  and  many  others,  are  discussed. 

If  the  teacher  has  good  control  of  the  class,  he  can 
greatly  add  to  the  interest  of  the  lesson  by  allowing 
the  one  who  asks  a  question  to  name  the  pupil  who  is 
to  answer.  If  the  teacher  sees  that  some  pupils  are 
slighted,  he  can  easily  remedy  the  evil  by  suggesting 
that  no  pupil  be  asked  to  recite  twice  until  all  have 
recited  once  ;  or  he  may  use  a  more  direct  means  and 
name  the  pupil  who  is  to  answer. 

When  the  teacher  sees  that  the  questions  do  not  call 
out  all  the  leading  thoughts  of  the  text,  he  can  assist 
by  asking  questions.  It  will  be  found  a  pleasing  device 
to  allow  the  pupil  who  has  given  a  correct  answer  to 
ask  the  next  question  and  select  the  one  to  answer. 
The  tendency  of  this  device  will  be  to  draw  out  the 
pupils  who  are  most  backward,  for  pupils  take  just 
pride  in  proving  that  they  have  found  thoughts  in  the 
text  which  others  have  passed  blindly  over.  A  few 
lessons  of  this  kind  will  cultivate  the  most  careful 
study  of  the  text. 

This  lesson-plan  does  not  call  for  the  examination 
of  the  various  papers  written  by  pupils.  Each  takes 
some  part  in  asking  and  answering ;  moreover  the 
pupils  soon  learn  to  feel  that  the  great  value  in  writing 

1  This  note  by  the  teacher  is  added  to  suggest  that  he  should  at  all 
times  be  ready  and  free  to  draw  on  his  own  fund  of  knowledge.  With 
this  in  mind,  many  notes  on  the  lessons  in  the  geography  have  been 
placed  in  this  Manual  for  the  teachers. 


10  teachers'  manual. 

the  questions  lies  in  the  fact  that  the  answers  are  at 
the  same  time  learned.  The  recitation  gives  all  an 
opportunity  to  show  how  fully  the  lesson  has  been 
learned.  If  at  any  time  a  pupil  finds  that  the  class  is 
passing  over  an  important  part  of  the  text,  he  should 
be  encouraged  to  show  that  he  has  a  good  question  to 
ask. 

When  the  lesson  is  over,  if  the  teacher  wishes  to 
impress  the  facts  still  more,  he  can  ask  the  pupils  to 
write  from  memory  what  they  have  learned.  This 
need  not  be  done,  however,  if  the  teacher  thinks  that 
the  facts  of  the  text  are  well  known. 

Lesson-Plan  3.  Now  and  then  the  teacher  can  vary 
the  lesson-plan  by  placing  a  list  of  topics  on  the 
blackboard  and  asking  the  pupils  to  learn  what  the 
text  teaches  about  the  topics.  A  glance  at  a  paragraph 
will  tell  the  teacher  what  the  topic  is.  For  example, 
we  will  select  from  our  sample  lesson  the  following 
topics  : 

1.  Depth  of  the  sea. 

2.  Sunlight  in  the  sea. 

3.  Surface  of  the  land  and  sea-bottom. 

4.  Action  of  wind  and  rain. 

5.  Changes  in  the  sea-bottom. 

Review  :  —  Tell  how  the  land  differs  from  the  sea- 
bottom. 

The  work  of  the  pupils  is  now  to  find  what  the  text 
teaches  about  each  topic.  They  are  to  study  the  lesson 
till  they  can  close  the  book  and  in  their  own  words 
recite  the  thoughts  of  the  text. 


teachers'  manual.  11 

At  first  it  may  be  wise  to  ask  the  pupils  to  write 
their  answers  to  the  topics.  The  teacher  can  then 
glance  over  the  papers  of  the  weaker  pupils  and  help 
them.  After  a  few  lessons  the  pupils  will  be  able  to 
study  without  writing. 

The  recitation  may  take  some  such  form  as  this  : 

Teacher.  —  "  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  depth  of  the  sea, 
Albert." 

Albert.  —  "  The  deepest  parts  are  far  out  in  the  ocean.  There 
are  some  places  five  miles  deep.  There  are  many  parts  of  the  sea 
near  the  shores  that  are  not  very  deep." 

Teacher.  —  "  Recite  on  the  same  topic,  Mabel." 

Mabel.  —  "  There  are  some  deep  places  near  the  shores,  but 
there  are  more  shallow  places.  Many  parts  of  the  ocean  are  two 
miles  deep.  Most  of  the  deep  places  are  far  out  in  the  sea.  Some 
deep  hollows  are  four  or  five  miles  below  the  surface." 

Teacher.  —  "  Does  any  one  wish  to  ask  Mabel  or  Albert  a 
question  ?  " 

Edith.  —  "I  should  like  to  ask  Mabel  how  she  knows  that  there 
are  deep  places  near  the  shores.     The  lesson  does  n't  say  so." 

Mabel.  —  "  The  text  does  n't  say  that  the  sea  is  shallow  all 
along  the  shores,  but  that  in  nearly  all  places  it  is  shallow.  If 
all  places  are  not  shallow,  some  must  be  deep." 

Grace.  —  "  How  does  Albert  know  that  the  deepest  places  are 
far  out  in  the  sea  ?  " 

Albert.  —  "I  think  the  text  says  so." 

Teacher "  Let  us  all  open  our  books  and  find  out.     Can  any 

one  find  a  statement  like  Albert's  ?  " 

William.  —  "  The  text  does  n't  say  just  what  Albert  did,  but  I 
think  it  means  that.  The  first  sentence  tells  about  the  sea  near 
the  land  and  does  n't  speak  of  deep  places.  The  second  sentence 
is  about  the  sea  far  from  the  land,  and  this  sentence  does  speak  of 
the  very  deep  places  in  the  sea.  I  think  that  if  there  were  still 
deeper  places  near  the  shore  the  text  would  say  so." 

As  the  class  agrees  with  William,  the  teacher  calls 
for  the  second  topic  from  Ada. 


12  teachers'  manual. 

Ada.  —  "  When  the  sun  shines  it  lights  the  land  and  the  upper 
part  of  the  ocean.  The  sun  warms  them  also.  Sometimes  the 
days  are  warmer  than  at  other  times  and  we  have  spring,  summer, 
autumn  and  winter.  The  bottom  of  the  deep  sea  has  no  sunshine. 
The  sun  can't  shine  deep  in  the  water.  It  must  always  be  dark 
down  there,  and  if  the  sun's  heat  does  not  reach  so  deep  it  must 
be  very  cold  all  the  time." 

Mabel.  —  "  Is  n't  it  a  little  warmer  on  the  deep  sea-bottom  in 
summer  than  it  is  in  winter?  " 

Teacher.  —  "  What  do  you  think  about  it,  Grace  ?  " 

Grace.  —  "  If  the  sun  never  shines  there  I  don't  see  what  differ- 
ence it  makes  whether  it  is  summer  or  winter  at  the  surface." 

Albert.  —  "  If  it  is  so  cold  why  does  n't  the  water  freeze  ?  " 

If  the  teacher  cannot  answer  this  question,  he  should 
frankly  say,  "  I  don't  know,  but  I  will  try  to  find  out 
and  tell  you."  The  most  learned  man  in  the  world 
cannot  answer  a  tenth  part  of  the  questions  which  a 
little  child  may  ask  about  any  lesson  in  this  book. 
Such  questions  are  likely  to  crop  out  at  any  time  in  all 
studies.  It  is  a  great  pleasure  to  be  able  to  say  now 
and  then  to  a  class,  "  I  don't  know,  but  I  will  try  to 
find  out."  It  fills  the  pupils  with  the  same  spirit,  — 
"  I  don't  know,  but  I  will  try  to  find  out."  If  you  would 
develop  honor  in  children,  be  honest  with  them.  If  the 
questions  are  such  as  you  ought  to  be  able  to  answer, 
be  sorry  that  you  cannot,  but  be  frank. 

On  the  other  hand,  if  you  can  answer  the  question, 
do  not  hesitate  to  do  so  even  though  you  know  that  the 
pupils  cannot  grasp  the  full  meaning.  The  answer  will 
show  them  the  need  of  growth.  Thus  the  teacher  may 
answer  Albert's  question  as  follows  :  "  The  water  is 
very  cold,  but  not  cold  enough  to  freeze.  Fresh  water 
freezes  at  the  temperature  of  82°,  but  salt  water  must 


teachers'  manual.  13 

be  about  four  degrees  colder  before  it  changes  to  ice. 
In  many  parts  the  deep  sea  reaches  30°,  but  that  is  not 
cold  enough  to  form  ice.  In  the  polar  regions  the  sur- 
face water  of  the  oceans  may  drop  to  28°  and  freeze, 
but  the  bottoms  of  the  oceans  are  never  quite  so  cold, 
though  parts  are  within  2°  of  it.  The  deep  sea  there- 
fore never  freezes." 

Teacher.  —  "  William  may  tell  what  he  knows  about 
the  surface  of  the  land  and  the  sea-bottom." 

Thus  the  work  goes  on  till  all  the  topics  have  been 
discussed.  The  pupils  receive  their  best  growth,  not 
from  the  study  of  the  text,  but  from  the  contact  of  mind 
with  mind  in  the  recitation  ;  yet  the  study  of  the  text 
affords  a  common  ground  for  the  meeting  of  the  minds. 

The  last  topic  is  headed  "Review."  This  topic  is  made 
broad  enough  to  cover  the  entire  lesson  and  may  serve 
as  a  subject  for  a  written  lesson,  if  the  teacher  desires. 
If  the  teacher  is  sure  that  the  pupils  know  the  meaning 
of  the  text,  this  written  exercise  may  not  be  desirable. 
It  will  tend,  however,  to  fix  the  facts  of  the  lesson. 

Lesson-Plan  4.  Teacher.  —  "  You  may  study  to-day's 
lesson  so  as  to  be  able  to  answer  any  questions  I  may 
ask  about  it.  As  }^ou  study  the  text  you  had  better 
think  what  questions  I  may  ask  and  learn  to  answer 
them.     Do  not  try  to  learn  the  words  of  the  book." 

The  teacher,  as  well  as  the  pupils,  should  prepare  for 
the  recitation.  He  should  read  the  text  carefully  and 
place  a  question  mark  near  each  word  that  suggests  a 
question.  When  the  class  is  ready  to  recite  he  can  then 
readily  glance  at  the  catch-words  thus  marked  and 
quickly  frame  his  questions. 


14  teachers'  manual. 

The  questions  may  deal  with  the  details  of  the  text. 
as  follows  : 

What  does  the  word  shallow  mean  ?  What  is  the 
sea  f  What  parts  of  the  sea  are  shallow  ?  What  parts 
are  deep  ?  How  deep  are  some  of  the  great  valleys  of 
the  sea-bottoin  ?     Etc..  etc. 

Or,  the  text  may  deal  with  broader  topics  resembling 
more  those  of  lesson-plan  3.  In  this  lesson  the  pupils 
have  not  had  the  topics  in  sight  for  study,  but  have 
been  learningr  to  read  or  study  a  text  without  such  aid. 
For  the  recitation  the  teacher  may  ask  a  pupil  to 
tell  what  he  knows  about  the  depth  of  the  sea  :  the 
sunlight  in  the  sea  :  the  surface  of  the  land  ;  the  sea- 
bottom  :  the  work  of  wind  and  rain  on  the  land  ;   etc. 

Lesson-plan  4  is  more  difficult  than  either  of  the 
preceding,  yet  it  is  the  way  that  pupils  must  learn  to 
read  and  study  books.  —  that  is.  without  questions  or 
topics.  After  leaving  school  they  cannot  find  such 
helps  in  the  books  they  will  study. 

Lesson-Plan  5.  Teacher.  —  ••  After  you  have  studied 
to-day's  lesson  you  may  write  for  me  what  the  text 
teaches.  I  do  not  want  you  to  learn  the  words  of  the 
book,  but  give  me  the  thoughts  in  your  own  words. 
As  you  study,  think  of  some  topics  to  remind  you  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  lesson.  These  will  help  you 
to  write  in  paragraphs.  If  you  have  good  topics  yon 
will  be  less  likelv  to  forget  the  parts  of  the  text.  Per- 
haps  u  study  you  can  think  what  you  will  wish  to 

write." 

After  the  lesson  is  written  the  papers  may  be  collected 
and  then  distributed  at  random  among  the  pupils.     The 


TEACHERS"    MA.XL'AL.  15 

teacher  then  directs  :  ••  Read  carefully  the  paper  which 
you  have  and  see  if   any  thoughts    EU  -    n  Lg.     If 

make  note  of  them  at  the  bottom  of  the  |  aper.  Th<  -  ■ 
sitting  in  the  back  seats  may  collect  the  papers  and 
return  them  to  the  pupils  who  wrote  them.  Look  at 
the  notes  on  your  own  paper  and  sec  what  you  forgot 
to  write." 

This  exercise  is  of  value  in  several  ways.  It  often 
places  an  excellent  paper  in  the  hands   i  ickward 

pupil  and  so  stimulates  him   to  better  work  by  giving 
him  a  better  ideal  ;  it  gives    •  very  pupil  a  ehanc<    I 
look  at  the  lesson  from  the  standpoint     f  som  ler 

pupil:  it  makes  pupils  careful  both  in  the  reading  of 
another  paper  and  in  the  writing  of  th         wn  ;  it  g 
the  teacher  opportunity  to  move   throi  _  •  aisles  as 

the  pupils  are  studying  the  papers  and  to  note  the  work 
of  the  backward  pupils.     The  hrighl  3  I  little 

attention,  but  they  get  what  thev  do  need.  —  namelv. 
practice  in  getting  and  giving  thought. 

Do  not  feel  that  every  paper  si  e  carefully  re 

by  the  teacher.     It  is  a   great  wasl        :    time  to  try  to 
correct  every  mistake.      S   I     t  three  or  four  from 
lesson   and   before    you   realize   it   hundreds    of    min  . 
errors  will  be  outgrown.     In  fact  the  unusual  errors  will 
correct    themselves,    or   will   1  ted   without   tJ 

teacher's  aid.  Let  the  teacher  direct  his  energy  against 
the  greatest  fan 

Comments. — Teachers  whose  ideal  rises  no  higher 
than  the  assigning  of  lessons  to  be  learned  word  1  . 
word,  do  not  of  course  wish  to  use  text  that  descril   - 

or  explains.      If  the   object  is  to  teach  empty  words,  a 


16  teachers'  manual. 

child  can  memorize  the  sentence,  "  A  plain  is  level 
land,"  more  quickly  than  two  or  three  pages  of  text 
explaining  how  the  various  kinds  of  plains  were  formed, 
—  some  along  the  banks  or  at  the  mouths  of  rivers  ; 
others  by  the  slow  uprising  of  smooth  sea-bottoms ; 
others  by  the  spreading  of  lava  over  great  areas ;  others 
by  the  draining  of  large  lakes ;  etc.,  etc.  By  the  former 
plan  he  knows  nothing  more  than  a  name  for  level  land ; 
by  the  latter  plan  he  knows,  not  only  how  the  vast 
plains  of  the  earth  were  formed,  but  also  why  some 
are  suited  to  produce  wheat,  cotton,  grass,  etc.,  while 
others  are  barren. 

For  actual  teaching,  —  not  mere  word-learning,  — 
the  text  which  fully  describes  and  explains  is  far 
simpler  than  the  definitions  and  other  text  which  for 
many  years  have  been  trimmed  and  pruned  till  not  a 
leaf,  twig  or  even  a  branch  is  left  on  the  worm-eaten 
old  word- trunks.  It  is  the  writer's  firm  belief  that  no 
teacher  who  has  tried  to  teach  text  by  lesson-plans  like 
those  above  (and  the  number  of  such  teachers  is  legion) 
will  ever  long  for  the  drudgery  of  driving  pupils  to 
crowd  their  minds  with  the  exact  words  of  any 
geography. 

Moreover,  pupils  should  be  trained  to  read  or  get 
thought  from  the  kind  of  text  which  will  be  constantly 
before  them  in  later  life,  —  in  newspapers,  magazines, 
works  on  travel,  history,  biography  and  general  litera- 
ture. Such  works  consist  of  descriptive  text  never  to 
be  memorized  word-for-word,  but  from  which  the  reader 
is  to  glean  the  grains  of  thought. 

In  other  words,  the  full  descriptive  text  is  not 

ONLY  THE  EASIEST  TO  TEACH,  BUT  IT  IS  THE  ONLY 
KIND  FROM  WHICH  PUPILS  CAN  BE  TAUGHT  TO  GET 
AND    GIVE    THOUGHT  ! 


teachers'  manual.  17 

3.     Text  in  Small  Type. 

The  following  note  appears  in  the  Preface  of  the 
Grammar  School  Geography  :  "  The  text  which  needs 
most  careful  study  is  in  large  type.  The  descriptive 
matter  in  small  type  does  not  call  for  close  study,  but 
may  be  used  for  supplementary  reading." 

These  small-type  notes  fill  out  the  thoughts  expressed 
in  the  large  type,  and  often  explain  or  describe  features 
or  phenomena  of  general  interest,  yet  not  essential  to 
a  brief  course  in  geography. 

To  illustrate  the  use  of  text  in  small  type,  we  will 
take  a  note  from  page  165  of  the  Grammar  School 
Geography,  as  follows : 

"  Fossil  elephants  are  found  in  the  gravelly  river 
banks  of  the  Siberian  tundras.  These  animals  had 
woolly  coverings  that  fitted  them  to  live  in  the  cold 
plains.  The  '  woolly  elephants '  are  unlike  any  now 
living  on  the  earth ;  yet  the  flesh  of  these  great  beasts, 
after  being  buried  perhaps  for  many  centuries  in  the 
frozen  ground,  is  sometimes  found  well  preserved  and 
is  eaten  by  dogs.  The  tusks  of  these  fossil  woolly 
elephants  have  for  a  long  time  supplied  part  of  the 
ivory  so  finely  carved  in  China  and  Japan." 

When  the  lesson  containing  this  small-type  note  is 
assigned  to  the  class  for  study,  the  teacher  may  say, 
"  You  need  not  study  the  part  of  the  lesson  in  small 
type,  but  read  it  carefully  and  find  out  where  the  people 
of  Japan  and  China  obtain  some  of  their  ivory,"  —  or, 
the  teacher  may  simply  say,  "  Read  the  note  in  small 
type  and  find  out  what  it  tells  about  ivory." 


18  teachers'  manual. 

All  that  is  needed  to  guide  the  pupils  in  the  study 
of  the  matter  in  small  type  is  a  topic  for  each  leading 
thought.  Many  of  these  notes  need  no  further  study 
than  comes  from  reading  and  briefly  discussing  them 
during  the  recitation  period.  Teachers  may  judge  that 
some  of  the  notes  are  worthy  of  close  study  according 
to  the  plans  suggested  for  the  text  in  large  type.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  teacher  may  decide  to  pass  over 
some  parts  of  the  text  in  large  type,  treating  it  like 
small  type. 

4.    The  Use  of  Pictures. 

The  pictures  are  an  essential  part  of  the  geography 
and  deserve  as  careful  study  as  the  text  or  the  maps. 
Nearly  all  the  pictures  were  engraved  directly  from 
photographs  and  are  true  to  nature  in  all  details.  Great 
care  was  used  to  select  only  typical  views. 

The  various  pictures  are  not  all  to  be  studied  in  one 
manner.  Some  are  suitable  to  describe  in  words. 
Pupils  may  model  or  draw  others,  or  parts  of  them. 
The  picture  of  a  Lapland  family,  on  opposite  page,  will 
serve  as  an  example  of  one  suitable  to  describe.  The 
teacher  may  assign  the  study  work  as  follows  : 

Teacher.  —  "  Write  what  the  picture  shows  you  about 
the  Lapps  and  the  way  they  live." 

Pupils  will  readily  see  that  the  Lapps  wear  thick 
coats  and  warm  caps  ;  they  bind  up  their  legs  ;  the}" 
live  in  a  hut  made  of  sods  ;  the  hut  has  a  wooden  door 
that  swings  out :  the  hut  is  rounded  in  form  ;  it  is  low 
and  small  for  so  many  people  ;  the  hut  is  dark  ;  it  has 
no  windows  ;  etc.,  etc. 


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20  teachers'  manual. 

If  pupils  are  not  guided  by  the  teacher,  they  may 
ramble  too  much  in  the  description.  It  may  be  well  to 
ask  them  to  tell  what  they  can  about  one  object  before 
going  to  another. 

The  lesson  may  take  the  form  of  studying  from  topics. 
The  teacher  places  upon  the  blackboard  a  few  guiding 
words,  —  as  people,  deer,  hut,  —  and  asks  the  pupils  to 
write  what  they  can  about  each. 

When  they  have  been  trained  to  see  and  describe, 
the  work  may  take  a  broader  basis.  Thus,  the  teacher 
may  ask  such  questions  as  these : 

"  What  is  there  in  the  picture  to  show  whether  these 
people  live  in  a  rainy  land  or  in  a  dry  one  ?  " 

Pupils  readily  see  that  without  rain  there  would  be 
no  grassy  sods  for  the  hut ;  no  moss  nor  branches  for 
the  reindeer ;  no  wood  to  burn ;  no  wood  for  the  door- 
way, etc. 

They  can  also  find  proof  that  the  air  is  cold,  in  the 
way  the  hut  is  built;  the  coats,  caps  and  boots  worn 
there ;  the  mittens  on  the  girl's  hands ;  the  fire  in  the 
hut;  etc.  Perhaps  some  pupils  know  that  reindeer 
live  in  cold  lands. 

Even  if  the  teacher  were  to  ask  whether  these  people 
read  books  and  newspapers,  the  pupils  might  judge  after 
seeing  how  dark  the  hut  is  inside,  with  no  windows ; 
how  cold  the  air  must  be  outside ;  also,  how  lacking  in 
intelligence  the  faces  seem. 

After  the  pupils  read  the  text  and  learn  that  the 
reindeer  live  in  a  land  that  is  snowy  in  winter  and  in 
places  marshy  in  summer,  they  may  be  led  to  still 
closer  study  of  the  picture,  —  to  see,  for  example,  how 
well  fitted  the  broad  hoofs  of   the   deer  are  for  travel 


TEACHERS*    MANUAL.  21 

over  the  snow  or  the  marshy  tundras,  and  also  for 
scraping  away  the  snow  to  find  moss  ;  how  the  sods 
are  placed  on  the  hut,  to  shed  rain  or  snow  water  ;  how 
the  binding  of  the  boot-legs  helps  to  keep  the  warmth 
in,  and  the  snow  or  water  out ;  etc.  Locate  Lapland 
on  the  map  of  Europe. 

This  picture  shows  more  about  the  life  of  the  Lapps 
than  could  be  told  in  a  long  chapter  of  text.  Unless 
such  pictures  receive  careful  study,  the  geography  is 
not  used  to  best  advantage. 

Pictures  as  Models.  —  Many  of  the  pictures  in  the 
geography  were  selected  as  types  of  land  and  water 
forms  for  modeling.  The  sand  or  the  clay  is  merely 
the  means  by  which  the  pupils  are  led  to  observe  the 
forms  in  the  pictures. 

Take,  for  example,  the  two  pictures  on  following  page. 
The  first  shows  a  volcano  with  a  lava-flow  between  the 
two  river  branches.  The  second  picture  shows  the 
same  region  after  ages  of  weathering  and  erosion.  The 
lava  now  rises  as  a  mesa,  —  a  common  form  in  our 
western  states.  The  volcano  now  appears  only  as  a 
remnant  or  "  neck '  of  hard  lava  that  once  filled  the 
opening  in  the  volcano. 

If  any  teacher  wishes  to  prove  the  value  of  sand  or 
clay  as  a  means  of  leading  to  careful  seeing,  let  him 
model  the  forms  in  these  two  pictures,  —  first,  the 
young  volcano  with  its  setting  of  bluffs,  valley  and 
lava-flow  ;  then  change  the  same  model  so  as  to  show 
the  mesa  and  neck.  Do  not  simply  try  to  imagine 
what  the  work  would  be,  but  do  the  icork  itself,  — 
actually  model  the  two  pictures  and  the  result  will 
prove  a  pleasing  surprise. 


22 


TEACHERS     MANUAL. 


Model  the  pictures  as  if  looking  down  on  them  from 
above.     Slight  portions  must  of  course  be  supplied  from 


Youkg  Volcano. 


the  imagination,  yet  this  part  of  the  work  has  great 
value  in  raising  the  question  as  to  what  forces  must 


u^*_H=--» 


Mesa  and  Volcanic  Neck. 


have  shaped  the  unseen  portions  and,  therefore,  what 
the  shape  must  be. 


TEACHERS     MANUAL. 


23 


When  preparing  to  teach  the  various  lessons,  the 
teacher  can  readily  select  such  pictures  as  are  best 
suited  for  modeling".  This  work  with  clay  or  sand  is 
not  essential,  but  it  is  certainly  very  helpful.  If  the 
modeling  cannot  be  done  during  school  hours,  many 
pupils  may  be  led  to  try  the  work  at  home. 

Many  of  the  pictures,  or  parts  of  them,  are  suitable 
for  drawing,  —  especially  plants,  animals,  simple  build- 
ings, diagrams  and  some  of  the  land  and  water  forms. 
The  drawing  is  simply  a  means  of  leading  pupils  to 
observe  more  closely.  If  any  teacher  doubts  the  value 
of  this  device,  let  him  try  to  draw  these  little  snow 
crystals  and  see  what  beauty  he  finds  in  them. 


5.    The  Use  of  Maps. 


Maps  should  be  studied  like  pictures.  The  aim  of 
the  map  study  should  be,  not  only  to  gain  knowledge 
of  the  world's  chief  features,  but  also  to  gain  poiver  to 
read  maps,  —  that  is,  power  to  get  thought  from  maps 
as  from  text. 

The  study  of  map  questions  alone  will  not  develop 
the  needed  power.  In  fact,  the  best  map  study  can  be 
done  without  the  usual  questions. 

Let  us  select  a  lesson  on  the  relief  map  of  North 
America.  Our  aim  will  be  to  lead  the  pupils  to  read 
the  map.  With  the  geographies  open  at  the  page  con- 
taining the  relief  map,  the  teacher  says :  k*  What  does 
the  map  show  you  about  North  America  ?  ' 


24  teachers'  manual. 

At  first  the  answers  will  be  rambling,  and  the  teacher 
wishes  them  to  be,  for  the  pupils  need  a  general  view 
of  the  entire  map.  Thus,  the  answers  may  come  as 
follows  : 

"  There  are  high  mountains  along  the  west  side. 
North  America  is  wide  at  the  north  and  narrow  at  the 
south.  There  are  low  mountains  in  the  east.  The 
middle  of  the  continent  is  a  great  plain.  The  eastern 
coastline  is  more  irregular  than  the  western.  There 
are  several  large  lakes  in  the  plain."     Etc.,  etc. 

When  the  pupils  have  discovered  the  relations  of  the 
principal  features,  the  work  may  be  made  more  specific 
by  saying  to  the  class,  "  Tell  me  more  about  the  great 
western  highland." 

The  pupils  will  see  that  it  is  very  long  ;  its  ranges 
extend  northwest  and  southeast ;  it  is  highest  not  far 
from  the  southern  end  ;  the  middle  part  is  widest ;  the 
highest  ranges  are  on  the  east  and  west  sides  of  the 
highland  ;  three  large  rivers  from  the  highland  flow  to 
the  sea  on  the  west  ;  etc. 

For  another  lesson,  the  teacher  may  direct  the  class 
to  tell  what  the  map  shows  about  the  great  central 
plain  ;  or  the  eastern  highland  ;  or  the  coastline  ;  or 
the  rivers.  This  work  may  be  oral  or  written.  If  one 
or  two  of  these  topics  are  assigned  for  a  study  period, 
the  answers  will  form  an  excellent  reading  lesson ; 
moreover,  by  having  the  answers  read  aloud,  pupils  can 
find  out  what  important  parts  of  the  map  they  failed 
to  see. 

At  first  little  attention  need  be  paid  to  names  of 
features  on  the  maps.  As  soon  as  the  teacher  wishes 
pupils  to  learn  the  names,  he  may  assign  a  lesson  as 


teachers'  manual.  25 

follows:  "Write  a  description  of  the  surface  of  North 
America,  using  any  of  the  names  you  wish,  as  shown 
on  the  key  map  opposite  the  relief  map."  Tins  work 
may  be  varied  according  to  the  lesson-plans  suggested 
for  the  text  in  the  preceding  pages.  In  fact,  the  same 
plans  may  be  used  for  text,  maps  or  pictures. 

The  map  studies  in  this  series  of  geographies  are 
carefully  graded,  so  that  pupils  are  made  to  rely  more 
and  more  on  their  own  seeing.  Thus,  compare  the  map 
studies  on  North  America  with  those  on  Africa  or 
Australia.  In  the  latter  the  pupils  are  made  to  rely 
more  fully  on  their  own  power  to  read  the  map  and 
gather  the  facts  for  themselves.  Pupils  gain  this 
power  very  quickly  under  proper  guidance. 

It  would  perhaps  be  a  good  plan  to  use  the  map 
studies  given  in  the  geography,  after  the  pupils  have 
made  a  careful  study  of  the  map  itself,  but  not  before. 
These  will  serve  to  review  what  the  pupils  have  dis- 
covered and  will  also  help  to  group  or  relate  the  im- 
portant facts. 

6.     Map  Drawing. 

Map  drawing  is  a  device  for  training  pupils  to  see  or 
to  read  maps.  The  first  question  for  the  teacher  is 
this  :  What  should  a  pupil  be  led  to  see  in  a  map  ? 
The  second  question  is  :  How  should  he  be  led  to 
see  ? 

First.  Pupils  should  know  the  general  shape  of  a 
continent ;  the  general  directions  of  the  coastlines  ;  the 
great  peninsulas  and  arms  of  the  sea  that  affect  the 
climate  of  large  natural  regions  ;  important  commercial 


26  teachers'  manual. 

bays  and  harbors.  They  need  not  know  the  details  of 
coastlines,  which  exert  little  if  any  influence  over  the 
life  of  the  continent. 

Finely  finished  maps,  showing  hundreds  of  details 
which  are  worse  than  worthless  in  the  mind,  —  simply 
clogging  the  memory  or  crowding  out  the  broader  and 
more  useful  knowledge  of  general  features,  —  might 
look  pretty  if  they  did  not  serve  to  remind  us  of  a  great 
waste  of  time  and  energy.  Pupils  should  be  trained 
to  draw  carefully  such  parts  of  a  map  as  are  worth 
remembering. 

The  following  account  of  actual  lessons  may  suggest 
a  simple  plan  for  teaching  map  drawing 1 : 

First  Lesson.  Teacher.  —  "Turn  to  the  simple  relief 
map  of  North  America,  in  the  supplement.  Draw  a 
straight  line  showing  the  general  direction  of  the 
northern  coast." 

"  Look  closely  at  the  map  and  then  at  your  line. 
Can  you  do  better  ?     Try  again." 

This  work  was  repeated  till  the  pupils  could  readily 
draw  the  line  in  the  proper  position. 

Teacher.  —  "  Draw  a  line  showing  the  general  direction  of  the 
east  coast."  This  line  was  drawn  again  and  again,  till  fixed  in 
mind  ;  then  the  pupils  learned  to  draw  a  line  for  the  west  coast. 
No  attempt  was  made  to  connect  the  three  lines. 

Teacher.  —  "  "Which  is  the  longest  line?  " 

Pupil.  —  "  The  west  line  is  the  longest." 

Teacher.  —  "  How  do  the  north  and  east  coasts  compare  in 
length  ?  " 

Pupil.  —  "  They  are  about  equal." 

1  Pupils  may  work  at  the  blackboard.  If  there  is  not  enough 
blackboard  room  for  the  entire  class,  part  can  draw  on  paper. 


TEACH  Hits1    MANUAL.  27 

Teacher. — u  Now  draw  the  three  lines  together,  showing  the 
general  directions  of  the  coasts." 

"Compare  with  the  map  and  try  again."  ••Try  once  more." 
So  the  wort  went  on  till  the  pupils  could  readily  indicate  the 
general  shape  of  the  continent. 

Second  Lesson.  Teacher. —  "Study  the  relief  map 
and  then  draw  the  general  shape  of  North  America,  by 
using  only  three  straight  lines."  This  was  repeated 
three  times  in  order  to  fix  the  shape  in  mind. 

"  Now  draw  the  northern  coastline,  as  it  appears  on 
the  map.  Compare  with  the  map  and  try  to  improve 
your  drawing.     Draw  the  north  coast  again." 

"  Practice  drawing  the  east  coast  till  you  can  draw  it 
from  memory." 

"  Draw  the  north  and  east  coasts  together." 

Third  Lesson.  Teacher  (after  a  review  of  lesson  2). 
—  "  Practice  drawing  the  west  coast.  Study  the  map 
each  time  you  draw." 

"  Now  draw  the  entire  coastline  of  the  continent. 
Compare  carefully  with  the  map  and  draw  again.  Re- 
peat till  you  can  draw  it  from  memory." 


In  teaching  map  drawing,  no  construction  lines  are 
needed  except  such  as  pupils  discover  in  the  relative 
directions  of  coastlines.  These  directions  may  easily 
be  judged.  The  effort  to  discover  and  draw  tends  to 
fix  the  lines  in  memory. 

The  above  lessons  on  North  America  will  serve  to 
illustrate  one  plan  of  training  pupils  to  draw  the  out- 
lines of  the  continents.  The  general  shapes  of  South 
America    and    Africa    can    be    shown    by    three    lines. 


28  teachers'  manual. 

Australia  is  so  simple  that  pupils  can  sketch  it  off- 
hand, without  first  indicating  the  general  directions  by 
straight  lines.  Europe  and  Asia  may  each  call  for  four 
lines,  though  three  serve  very  well. 

The  value  of  this  work  is  in  leading  the  pupils  to 
discover  for  themselves  the  general  directions  of  the 
coastlines. 

If  the  class  is  to  use  the  device  of  sand  modeling, 
the  mountains  and  streams  can  be  shown  on  the  raised 
sand  maps  and  need  not  be  taught  by  drawing  ;  but  if 
the  sand  table  is  not  to  be  used,  the  pupils  should  draw 
the  rivers  and  mountains.  The  guide  maps  in  the 
supplements  of  the  geographies  suggest  the  amount 
of  details  that  a  class  may  reasonably  be  expected  to 
memorize. 

These  guide  maps  are  based  on  several  principles, 
among  which  are  these  :  (1)  The  coastlines  show  the 
chief  indentations  and  projections  which  affect  the 
climate  of  large  regions.  (2)  The  rivers  on  the  maps 
show  where  the  principal  slopes  of  the  river  basins 
meet.  (3)  The  mountain  ranges  are  those  which  form 
the  chief  divides  between  the  large  river  basins. 

The  relief  maps  in  the  supplements  show  the  com- 
parative areas  of  the  continents.  These  areas  are  also 
shown  on  the  various  globe  maps  in  the  geography,  as 
well  as  on  the  colored  relief  maps,  pages  17  to  23. 

7.   Use  of  Molding  Sand  and  Clay. 

Map  modeling,  like  sketching  or  drawing,  is  a  means 
of  arousing  and  directing  mental  activity.  Being  simply 
a  device,  sand  modeling  may  or  may  not  be  used,  as 


teachers'  manual.  29 

teachers  judge  best.  A  few  suggestions  may  prove 
helpful  to  those  who  model  in  sand. 

In  the  study  of  a  school  district  the  attempt  to  model 
hills,  valleys,  plains,  etc.,  using  either  nature  or  good 
pictures  for  models,  leads  pupils  to  look  closely  at  the 
forms  ;  but  the  sand  should  never  be  used  in  the  place  of 
nature  or  pictures  of  the  same. 

In  the  study  of  a  continent,  molding  sand  may  be 
used  to  show  the  main  slopes  and  other  general  features; 
but  the  character  of  the  surface,  —  that  is,  whether 
rocky,  sandy  or  loamy,  fertile  or  barren,  young  or  old, 
—  can  best  be  learned  from  pictures  and  text. 

Care  of  Sand.  —  Fine  sand  of  any  kind  can  be  used. 
Iron-molder's  sand  is  excellent,  when  sifted: 

Keep  the  sand  moist  by  sprinkling  upon  it  a  little 
water  each  day  after  using.  Do  not  try  to  mix  the 
sand  while  wet,  but  let  it  stand  over  night  and  the 
water  will  filter  evenly  through  it.  If  kept  in  a  covered 
box  it  will  need  but  little  water.  The  exact  amount 
must  be  learned  by  practice.  The  sand  retains  its 
form  best  when  only  slightly  damp,  and  should  never 
be  wet  enough  to  stick  to  the  hands. 

The  Sand  Table.  —  Make  a  table-top  about  three  by 
four  feet,  with  a  rim  raised  two  inches.  Use  seasoned 
wood. 

Place  the  top  on  a  small  table  or  stand,  about  32 
inches  in  height.  Fasten  at  one  end  by  hinges  so  that 
it  may  be  tipped  towards  the  pupils.  Strips  of  wood, 
like  those  used  to  hold  up  piano-tops,  may  be  used  to 
support  it  at  any  angle. 

A  zinc-lined  drawer  placed  under  the  table-top  will 
be  found  convenient  for  holding  the  sand,  although  it 


30  teachers'  manual. 

can  be  kept  in  any  common  box  or  bucket.  A  coat  or 
two  of  blue  paint  on  the  table  will  tend  to  preserve  it 
and  give  a  good  background  for  the  sand. 

Model  Tins.  —  In  many  schools  each  pupil  is  supplied 
with  a  tin  tray  upon  which  he  models  while  the  teacher 
is  making  a  large  map  on  the  sand  table.  This  device 
insures  individual  attention  and  work  by  requiring  all 
pupils  to  model  at  the  same  time. 

Model  tins  can  be  supplied  by  any  tinsmith.  They 
are  simply  shallow  pans.  They  should  be  made  of  stiff 
tin,  14  by  20  inches,  hemmed,  rimmed  one-half  inch, 
with  the  hem  turned  out  and  corners  soldered. 

Potter's  Clay.  —  Potter's  clay,  such  as  is  used  in 
kindergartens  and  primary  schools,  is  excellent  for  mak- 
ing careful  models  of  natural  forms  of  land  and  water, 
either  from  nature  or  pictures  of  the  same. 

Some  teachers  use  putty,  papier  mache*  or  modeling 
wax  for  making  models  of  maps  that  are  to  be  kept  for 
a  long  time.  We  should  not  forget  that  the  making  of 
the  map,  and  not  the  map  itself,  is  of  greatest  value  to 
the  pupil.  It  will  therefore  doubtless  be  found  that 
sand  is  the  best  material  for  general  modeling. 

8.   Map  Modeling. 

A  marked  fault  in  geography  work  is  the  attempt  to 
teach  too  many  details  of  relief,  outline  and  location. 
Pupils  are  often  forced  to  learn  the  names  of  hundreds 
of  unimportant  forms  of  relief,  as  well  as  places,  which 
teachers  themselves  cannot  retain  in  memory.  There 
are  not  too  many  studies  in  the  public  schools,  but  there 
is  too  much  study  of  worse  than  worthless  details.     The 


teachers'  manual.  31 

chief  purpose  of  the  simple  relief  maps  in  the  various 
supplements  is  to  indicate  the  few  essential  features 
of  relief  of  the  continents. 

Before  beginning  to  model  a  continent,  —  for  example, 
North  America  —  the  teacher  and  the  pupils  should 
learn  to  draw  the  general  outline.  Practice  drawing 
upon  the  blackboard,  and  make  the  outlines  of  the 
maps  as  large  as  they  will  be  on  the  sand  table. 

Spread  about  two  quarts  of  damp  sand  in  a  very  thin 
and  even  layer  over  the  table.  Draw  the  outline  of  the 
map  in  the  sand.  Brush  all  the  spare  sand  into  one 
corner  of  the  table. 

Next  build  up  the  great  plateaus  —  not  mountain 
ranges.  On  a  table-top  three  by  four  feet,  use  a  scale 
of  about  one  fourth  of  an  inch  for  1000  feet.  As  the 
chief  object  of  the  modeling  is  to  sIioav  the  relative 
positions  of  main  slopes,  do  not  waste  time  in  making 
exact  measurements  of  the  depth  of  the  sand.  What  the 
eye  cannot  readily  detect  cannot  wrongly  impress  the 
minds  of  pupils.  Lay  stress  on  the  slopes  rather  than 
on  the  depth  of  the  sand. 

Thus,  model  the  broad  plateau  in  the  western  part  of 
the  continent.  Let  it  extend  the  entire  length  of  the 
Pacific  coast.  Notice  that  the  high  land  spreads  from 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade  range  to  the  Rocky 
mountains,  and  thence  descends  gently  eastward  into  the 
great  central  river  basins. 

At  the  isthmus  of  Tehuantepec  the  highland  drops 
into  low  hills.  The  plateau  of  Mexico  is  about  8000 
feet  high,  —  the  ranges  being  much  higher.  The 
average  height  of  the  Great  Basin  is  about  4000  feet. 
There  is  a  general  descent  of  the  western  plateau  from 


32  teachers'  manual. 

Mexico  to  the  Arctic  coast.  The  plateau  level  in  Colo- 
rado is  about  6000  feet  above  the  sea. 

It  is  an  easy  matter  to  estimate  the  needed  depth  of 
the  sand  on  the  table.  The  800  feet  in  Mexico  may  be 
shown  by  two  inches  ;  but  if  this  depth  is  too  great  for 
convenient  modeling  —  owing  to  the  narrowness  of 
Mexico  —  do  not  hesitate  to  make  it  lower.  The 
height  of  the  Great  Basin  will  be  shown  by  one  inch 
of  sand. 

Next  model  the  plateau  of  the  eastern  highland, 
extending  from  Alabama  to  Labrador.  The  general 
level  is  a  little  under  2000  feet.  Make  the  depressions 
for  the  St.  Lawrence,  Champlain,  Hudson  and  Mohawk 
valleys.  From  the  region  of  the  Great  Lakes  build  the 
Height  of  Land  westward  towards  the  Rockies,  —  the 
elevation  in  the  lake  region  being  about  1000  feet  above 
sea  level.  Next  model  the  low  plateau  on  the  east  side 
of  the  Mackenzie  basin. 

From  all  the  highlands  thus  built,  model  the  slopes 
of  the  river  basins  forming  the  great  central  plain. 
Make  the  slopes  so  that  they  will  meet  in  the  beds  of 
the  large  rivers.  Thus  the  slopes  from  the  Rocky  and 
Appalachian  mountains  meet  in  the  bed  of  the  Missis- 
sippi- The  Ohio  and  Missouri  rivers  show  where  the 
southern  slopes  from  the  Height  of  Land  meet  the 
slopes  from  the  Appalachian  and  Rocky  mountains. 
Lead  the  pupils  to  think  of  river  beds  as  the  lines  along 
which  slopes  meet  at  their  lower  edges. 

Model  the  Pacific  and  Atlantic  slopes. 

Do  not  forget  that  the  prime  object  of  the  modeling 
is  to  show  relative  positions  of  main  slopes ;  therefore, 
see  that  every  portion  of  the  map  shows  slope. 


teachers'  manual.  33 

Next  build  the  mountain  ranges.  Lead  pupils  to 
think  of  the  ranges  as  marking  the  upper  parts  of  some 
of  the  slopes.  Others  do  not  end  at  the  crestlines  of 
ranges,  but  blend  with  other  slopes  in  plains,  as  in  many 
parts  of  the  Height  of  Land. 

The  following  principle  is  suggested  to  guide 
teachers  in  the  selection  of  important  ranges  for  model- 
ing :  Model  the  ranges  ivhich  divide  great  river  basins. 
Pay  no  attention  at  this  stage  to  the  location  of  particu- 
lar peaks,  but  simply  give  the  ranges  a  broken  or  other 
characteristic  appearance.  The  peaks  worthy  of  special 
study  can  be  added  later  when  they  are  subjects  of 
a  lesson,  or  they  can  be  located  on  the  maps  in  the 
geographies. 

Look  for  the  chief  centers  of  drainage,  —  the  regions 
from  which  many  great  rivers  flow.  North  America  has 
three,  namely :  The  region  about  Yellowstone  park  for 
the  Missouri,  north  branch  of  the  Colorado,  southeast 
branch  of  the  Columbia,  Rio  Grande,  etc.  ;  the  Rocky 
mountains  of  British  Columbia  for  waters  reaching 
the  Fraser,  Columbia,  Saskatchewan,  Athabasca  and 
Mackenzie  ;  the  Height  of  Land  in  which  rise  the 
Mississippi,  the  Red  river  and  others. 

Now  trace  the  beds  of  the  great  rivers  shown  on  the 
map  in  the  supplement.  A  simple  device  is  to  groove 
slightly  the  sand,  using  a  pencil  point,  but  taking  care 
not  to  cut  through  to  the  table  top.  After  tracing  the 
rivers,  begin  near  the  mouth  of  each  and  see  that  the 
land  actually  slopes  upward  to  the  source  ;  also  that  the 
river  beds  lie  at  the  lower  edges  of  the  side  slopes. 
The  Great  Lakes  may  be  traced  with  a  pencil  point, 
and  then  slightly  depressed. 


34 


TEACHERS     MANUAL. 


With  a  thin  strip  of  wood  or  any  sharp  edge,  cut 
the  relief  map  into  two  parts  and  sketch  the  cross- 
section  thus  made.  This  is  an  excellent  device  for 
teaching  the  slopes  and  the  comparative  heights.  Let 
one  cut  be  made  across  the  principal  highlands,  and 
another  following  the  greatest  valley.  Thus,  in  North 
America  the  sections  may  be  shown  from  San  Francisco 
to  cape  Hatteras,  and  from  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
to  the  mouth  of  the  Mackenzie.  Other  sections  also 
may  be  shown  as  the  map  is  modeled  on  different  days. 

After  a  little  practice,  teachers  can  model  a  continent 
in  from  five  to  ten  minutes.  Try  to  make  the  work 
simple,  by  omitting  useless  details.  The  hints  given 
above  will  enable  teachers  to  model  any  continent, 
using  as  guides  the  maps  in  the  supplements  of  the 
geographies. 

The  following  table  of  general  elevations  of  plateaus 
(in  feet)  may  prove  helpful  in  modeling  : 


South  America. 

Bolivia 12,000 

Brazil 2,000 

Guiana 2,000 

Central  plain  ....  250 


Asia. 


Tibet  .  . 
Middle  Basin 
Gobi  desert 
Altai  .  . 
Hindustan  . 
Persia  .  . 
Asia  Minor 


14,000 
3,000 
4,000 
4,000 
1,500 
4,000 
3,000 


Europe. 

Swiss 2,000 

Spanish 2,000 

Valdai  hills      ....  1,000 

Scandinavian  ....  2,000 

Africa. 

Abyssinia 7,000 

Kongo  basin    ....  2,500 

Zambezi  basin      .     .     .  3,000 

Kalahari  desert    .     .     .  3,000 

Sahara  desert  ....  1,000 

Atlas 2,000 

Central  Lake  region       .  4,000 


Australia. 

The  border  highlands  are  about  as  high  as  the  eastern  high- 
lands in  Xorth  America. 


H.    ELKMEXTS  OF  GEOGRAPHY   LESSON  NOTES. 


1.     Geography.1 

To  Teachers  :  Bead  the  Preface  of  the  Elements  of  Geog- 
raphy, and  then  read  the  rest  of  the  book,  in  order  to 
get  the  general  ^>Z«n  of  the  ivork.  Pages  1  to  34  of 
this  Manual  suggest  methods  of  teaching  the  lessons, 
and  should  be  studied  with  care. 

Teachers  who  wish  to  gain  fuller  knowledge  of  the 
topics  treated  in  the  Elements  of  Geography  may  derive 
help  from  the  lessons  on  the  same  topics  in  the  larger 
geography.     Refer  to  the  index  of  the  latter. 

Study  each  lesson  and  make  it  your  own.  No  book 
of  methods  can  take  the  place  of  live  thought. 

Find  out  what  each  lesson  teaches.  Make  note  of 
the  facts  that  are  to  be  brought  out  by  the  class. 

Think  how  best  to  throw  light  on  these  facts,  — 
whether  by  pictures,  by  short  stories  or  by  crayon 
sketches.  Above  all,  know  your  school  district.  Be 
ever  alert  to  direct  pupils  to  objects  that  they  can  see 
or  handle,  —  to  hills,  brooks,  flowers,   animals,  people. 

Let  each  lesson  grow  out  of  the  one   preceding  it. 

1  All  number  and  title  references  in  part  II  of  this  Manual  are  to 
pages  and  lessons  in  the  Elements  of  Geography.  The  letter  M  placed 
after  figures  (thus,  page  9  M)  refers  to  this  Manual. 

35 


36  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

Forge  a  chain  of  thought  and  each  link  will  help  to 
hold  all  others  in  memory. 

The  work  of  making  a  definition  is  of  great  value  to 
pupils  tvhen  they  have  ideas  to  classify.  Such  work 
then  tends  to  vivify  and  to  relate  ideas. 

Thoughtful  teachers  no  longer  treat  pupils  as  if  they 
were  parrots  to  chatter  words.  The  objects  themselves 
are  studied,  and  not  their  mere  word-shells. 

Each  lesson  contains  a  few  words  that  are  new  to 
pupils.  Make  a  list  of  such  words,  and  be  sure  that 
pupils  learn  the  sense  in  which  each  word  is  used,  and 
also  how  to  pronounce  it. 

Let  overworked  teachers  bear  in  mind  the  fact  that 
each  minute  spent  in  preparing  a  lesson  saves  ten  minutes 
in  teaching  it. 

The  first  lesson  in  the  geography  aims  to  interest  pu- 
pils in  the  study  and  to  give  an  inkling  of  its  meaning. 

Lead  pupils  to  talk  about  parts  of  the  earth  that 
they  have  seen.  Webs  of  spiders  and  cocoons  of  moths 
will  give  an  idea  of  the  work  of  silkworms.  See 
Arabs  and  camels  on  pages  46  and  47.  A  sandy  field 
will  serve  to  illustrate  desert;  see  also  pages  102  aud 
103.  Lead  pupils  to  make  a  collection  of  spices  ;  see 
page  110.  Talk  about  the  land  of  the  Eskimo  and 
seal;  see  pages  43  and  44.  Flax,  thistle  or  milkweed 
will  help  to  teach  cotton.     See  mountains  on  page  13. 

Do  not  teach  all  the  above  in  one  lesson. 

For  pronunciation  of  names  of  places  and  of  other 
words  used  in  Elements  of  Geography,  see  supplement. 
If  pupils  are  to  use  the  Pronouncing  Word  List  they 
should  be  trained  to  pronounce  the  key  words. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  37 

2.  Hills  and  Valleys. 

The  purpose  of  this  lesson  is  to  lead  pupils  to  loot 
for  hills  and  valleys  near  home. 

Running  water  shows  which  way  land  slants. 

How  does  a  hill  differ  from  a  valley  ?  This  question 
does  not  call  for  definitions.  Pupils  can  discover  that 
on  a  hill  the  sides  meet  at  the  top,  while  in  a  valley 
they  meet  at  the  bottom  ;  that  a  hill  rises  above  the 
land  near  it,  while  a  valley  is  lower  than  the  land  at  its 
sides  ;  that  water  runs  away  from  hills,  and  into  valleys. 
A  few  simple  questions  will  help  to  bring  out  these  and 
other  thoughts.     Do  not  expect  too  much  at  first. 

Pupils  can  draw  hills  and  valleys,  on  the  blackboards. 
The  sand  tables,  now  in  use  in  many  schools,  will  help 
to  illustrate  this  lesson. 

3.  Brooks  and  Rivers. 

To  show  that  the  speed  of  streams  depends  mainly 
on  the  slant  (or  slope)  of  the  land,  and  to  teach  the 
names  brook  and  river. 

Look  for  names  in  the  pictures,  page  2.  Rain  feeds 
these  brooks.  The  water  flows  swiftly  in  the  rapids, 
because  the  land  is  steep.  Under  the  bridge  the  land 
is  nearly  level. 

The  brooks  spread  over  the  meadow,  because  there  is 
a  hollow  in  it.  The  water  fills  the  hollow  and  makes  a 
pond. 

See  pictures  of  rivers  on  pages  3,  5,  10,  11,  14,  102 
and  135.    '  See  brooks  on  pages  4  and  7. 


38  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

4.     Slopes. 

To  teach  the  value  of  slopes  in  nature. 

Talk  about  the  slopes  near  your  school,  and  then  find 
pictures  of  slopes  in  this  book.  This  text  may  be  used 
for  an  oral  reading  lesson. 

Pupils  can  discover  that  the  pond  in  the  meadow  has 
already  overflowed  its  banks.  The  water  now  runs  off 
as  fast  as  it  flows  in.  In  times  of  heavy  rain  the  water 
may  flow  in  faster  than  it  can  flow  out.  Then  the 
pond  will  spread  over  more  of  the  meadow. 

The  text  does  not  state  that  all  ponds  and  lakes  are 
made  by  brooks  and  rivers. 

What  can  pupils  find  in  the  picture  ? 

5.    Kinds  of  Soil. 

To  lead  pupils  to  observe  the  kinds  of  soil  in  their 
district. 

Use  any  kinds  of  soil.  Let  the  pupils  know  that  the 
water  poured  on  the  soil  shows  what  becomes  of  some 
of  the  rain. 

Plants  that  decay  help  to  form  soil.  If  there  is  a  grove 
near  your  school,  the  pupils  may  find  leaf  mold  in  it. 

The  most  important  part  of  this  lesson  is  that  of 
interesting  pupils  in  collecting  kinds  of  soil. 

6.     Work  of  Water. 

To  show  that  water  washes  away  soil. 
Try  to  teach  this  lesson  on  a  rainy  day.     Lead  pupils 
to  talk  about  the  picture.     Notice  the  clear  sky  above 


ELEMENTS   OF   GEOGRAPHY.  39 

the  clouds.  The  rain  shows  the  direction  in  which  the 
wind  is  blowing.  The  sun  lights  the  tops  of  the 
clouds. 

Have  pupils  seen  washouts?  Have  they  seen  roads 
cut  by  rain? 

Sand  is  too  heavy  for  slow  rills  to  move.  Fine  soil 
is  lighter  and  is  more  easily  carried. 

Footnote.  —  Weather  Record. 

To  train  pupils  to  observe  the  weather. 

This  work  lays  a  basis  for  the  study  of  climate,  and 
thus  saves  time  in  the  higher  grades.  No  part  of  the 
entire  course  is  more  important  than  the  making  of 
these  records. 

7.    Loose  Soil. 

To  show  why  soil  around  plants  should  be  kept 
loose. 

Let  the  pupils  who  try  the  experiments  make  a  report 
to  the  class. 

Frost  cracks  and  crumbles  soil. 

8.    Rain  in  the  Soil. 

To  teach  the  work  of  water  in  soil. 

Great  interest  can  be  aroused  by  trying  some  of  the 
following  experiments  : 

Put  a  few  kernels  of  corn  into  a  bottle  of  water,  and 
see  how  soon  they  will  sprout. 

Sow  a  little  grass  or  flax  seed  in  a  wet  sponge. 

Put  two  or  three  potatoes  in  a  damp  cellar  to  sprout. 


40  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

Place  a  sweet  potato  in  a  glass  of  water  and  keep  it 
in  a  warm  room.     It  will  make  a  beautiful  vine. 

Hollow  out  a  common  potato,  being  careful  not  to 
injure  the  "  eyes  "  ;  fill  it  with  wet  soil,  and  plant  in  it 
an  ivy  or  other  vine. 

Take  good  care  of  the  plants  and  they  will  tell  a 
wonderful  story. 

A  box  of  ants  will  prove  very  instructive,  and  pupils 
will  never  grow  weary  of  watching  these  little  toilers. 
The  box  should  have  a  glass  cover.  Put  in  a  few 
crumbs  of  bread  each  clay. 

9.    How  Soil  settles. 

To  lead  the  thought  to  the  order  in  which  soil  or 
rocky  matter  settles  in  water. 

The  coarse  and  heavy  matter  settles  first.  The  finest 
soil  settles  on  top. 

10.    Work  of  the  Brooks. 

To  show  how  brooks  carry  soil. 

The  rapids,  of  course,  roll  the  pebbles.  They  wash 
down  the  sand,  also.  If  there  were  no  pond,  the  brook 
would  carry  the  mud  away  and  deposit  it  somewhere  in 
still  water. 

11.    Deltas. 

To  show  how  deltas  are  made.  The  teacher  may  wish 
to  read  lesson  8  of  the  Grammar  School  Geography,  and 
perhaps  the  first  column  of  page  161. 

The  Greeks  gave  the  name  delta  to  the  alluvial  land 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  41 

at  the  mouth  of  the  Nile,  because  this  low  land  was 
shaped  like  the  Greek  letter  (A)  delta.  The  word 
channel  is  here  used  in  the  sense  of  a  trough  or  cut  in 
which  water  flows.  See  maps  of  the  Orinoco,  Ganges 
and  Nile  deltas,  on  pages  80,  86  and  98. 

It  may  be  a  good  plan  to  turn  to  the  maps  on  page 
29,  and  show  pupils  the  land  and  sea.  No  names  for 
the  parts  of  the  sea  are  now  needed. 

On  page  91  there  is  a  picture  of  a  village  built  in 
the  delta  of  the  Ganges. 

12.     Water  and  Heat. 

To  show  the  origin  of  clouds. 

The  word  vapor  is  often  loosely  used  in  the  sense  of 
cloud,  fog  or  smoke.  In  this  book  the  word  is  used  in 
its  true  scientific  meaning.  Water  vapor  is  water  in  its 
gaseous  state,  and,  as  such,  is  invisible. 


As  the  water  in  the  bottle  is  heated,  observe  the 
bubbling  or  boiling.  A  tiny  cloud  can  be  seen  coming 
from  the  bottle.  The  deposit  of  moisture  on  the  cold 
glass  will  prove  that  the  cloud  contains  water. 

The  cold  window  will  show  that  the  breath  contains 
vapor  of  water.  The  water  in  the  tin  cup  goes  away 
as  vapor  in  the  air. 

Pupils  will  readily  answer  that  the  cloud  from  the 
kettle  is  made  by  heating  water.  They  may  discover 
that  the  hot  water  changes  into  vapor,  and  that  the 
vapor  changes  into  this  cloud. 

Do  not  expect  too  much  from  pupils  in  this  lesson. 
Let  them  see  the  experiments  and  tell  what  they  see. 


42  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

13.     Forms  of  Water. 

To  lead  pupils  to  observe  forms  of  water. 

This  lesson  should  be  made  very  simple.  The  ques- 
tion of  dew-point,  or  of  saturation,  need  not  arise. 

Tyndall  uses  the  name  water-dust  for  cloud. 

Snow  is  now  thought  to  be  frozen  vapor.  When 
vapor  freezes  upon  grass,  stones,  etc.,  it  forms  frost. 
True  frost  is  not  frozen  dew. 

Just  before  water  freezes,  it  expands.  Water  at  the 
freezing  point  is,  therefore,  lighter  than  that  which  is 
slightly  warmer.  The  colder  water  rises  and  freezes 
over  the  warmer. 

The  meaning  of  the  picture  is  plain.  Just  as  the 
water  in  the  kettle  is  changed  by  heat  into  vapor  that 
forms  a  cloud,  so  the  surface  of  the  sea  or  of  the  lake 
is  changed  into  vapor  that,  in  turn,  forms  clouds.  In 
all  these  cases,  the  vapor  is  in  the  clear  space  between 
the  water  and  the  cloud. 


14.    Springs. 

To  direct  the  thought  to  water  coming  out  of  the 
ground. 

In  some  places,  as  in  swamps,  the  soil  is  filled  with 
water ;  but  in  many  places  the  water  finds  its  way  to 
springs,  and  thus  flows  out  of  the  ground. 

Many  brooks  flow  in  dry  seasons,  because  they  are 
fed  by  springs.  Raindrops  may  travel  for  months  in 
soil  before  reaching  a  spring. 

Note  that  a  spring  is  not  the  "  place  where  a  stream 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  I-', 

starts,"  —  it  is  the  flowing  water  itself.  The  issue  of 
water  from  the  ground,  or  the  beginning  of  the  stream, 
and  not  the  hole  in  the  ground,  is  the  spring. 

15.  Sources  of  Streams. 

To  show  the  various  ways  in  which  streams  form. 

It  does  not  seem  best  to  discuss  fully  at  this  time 
the  sources  of  streams  shown  in  the  pictures.  Brief 
mention  of  each  kind  will  suffice.  The  larger  book  of 
the  series  gives  more  details. 

One  picture  on  page  7  shows  the  melting  end  of  a 
glacier.     See,  also,  the  picture  on  page  52. 

Pupils  may  need  assistance  in  understanding  the 
picture  of  the  glacier  on  page  7.  The  entire  white 
mass,  looking  like  a  distant  mountain  chain,  is  the  end 
of  a  great  glacier.  See  the  wide  cave  in  the  end  of 
this  glacier.     A  huge  block  of  ice  has  recently  fallen. 

Page  107  shows  other  hot  springs,  now  partly 
destroyed. 

What  can  pupils  discover  in  the  pictures  on  page  7? 

16.  Where  Brooks  flow. 

To  teach  that  brooks  follow  slopes. 

Brooks  cannot  flow  uphill,  and  so  they  wind  around 
the  high  places  in  their  paths. 

Every  stream  must  flow  downhill. 

The  speed  of  a  stream  depends  largely  on  the  slope 
of  the  land  over  which  it  flows,  as  well  as  on  the 
volume  of  water. 

Brooks  spread  out  in  low  and  level  places. 


44  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

17.  Systems  and  Basins. 

To  prepare  for  the  study  of  the  basins  and  systems 
of  the  grand  divisions. 

The  lower  picture  on  page  8  shows  two  brook  basins, 
with  their  systems. 

Show  pupils  the  Mississippi  basin  on  pages  61  and 
65. 

A  basin  is  land ;  a  system  is  water.  A  basin  is  made 
of  slopes,  while  a  system  is  made  of  streams.  A  sys- 
tem drains  a  basin. 

Point  out  the  great  systems  and  basins  on  the  map, 
page  80. 

18.  The  Top  of  a  Ridge. 

To  prepare  for  the  study  of  divides1  in  the  grand 
divisions. 

A  sand  table  would  greatly  aid  in  impressing  this 
lesson.  If  there  is  a  ridge  near  the  school,  refer  to  it 
for  all  answers. 

When  rain  falls  on  the  top  of  the  ridge,  part  of  the 
water  doubtless  flows  into  each  valley. 

Each  valley  reaches  to  the  top  of  this  ridge  and  is 
bounded  by  the  line  forming  the  valley-rim. 

19.     Divides. 

The  aim  is  the  same  as  in  lesson  18. 
If  possible,  direct  pupils  to  a  divide  near  the  school. 
One  minute  with  nature  is  worth  a  day  with  a  map. 

1  Some  teachers  prefer  the  term  water-partings. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 


I." 


Have  you  any  pictures  of  divides  ? 

Lead  pupils  to  trace  some  of  the  divides  on  the  map, 
page  80.  Make  clear  the  fact  that  water  partings  may 
be  on  low  land  as  well  as  on  high  ranges. 


Illustrative  Lesson.  —  It  may  prove  helpful  to 
teachers  to  study  this  report  of  a  lesson. 

The  aim  is  to  teach  how  rain  is  gathered  into 
streams.  The  teacher  shows  to  the  class  a  map  like 
the  one  on  this  page,  but  made  in  actual  relief  on  a 
sand  table.  This  map  is  made  of  clay  or  of  putty,  and 
is  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  loam. 

Water  is  sprinkled  upon  the  map,  and  tiny  streams 
form  in  the  low  places. 

Teacher.  —  "  In  what  direction  does  every  brook  flow  ?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  It  flows  downhill." 
«  It  follows  the  valley." 


46  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

"  It  flows  from  the  high  places  to  the  low  ones." 
"  It  runs  down  the  steepest  slopes." 

Teacher.  —  "  In  what  part  of  a  valley  should  you  look  for  a 
brook?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  We  should  look  in  the  lowest  part." 

"  A  brook  is  just  between  the  slopes." 

"  It  is  where  the  slopes  from  both  sides  meet." 

Teacher.  —  "  How  much  land  does  a  brook  drain?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  It  drains  a  valley." 

"  It  drains  all  the  land  that  slopes  toward  it." 

"  Water  flows  from  the  sides  of  the  hills  into  the  brook." 

Teacher  (sprinkling  water  upon  the  middle  ridge).  —  "  Into 
which  valley  does  this  water  flow  ?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  It  flows  into  both." 
"  Part  flows  into  each." 

Teacher.  —  "  Why  does  not  all  the  water  flow  into  one  valley?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  Because  it  can't  flow  uphill." 

"  It  must  flow  down  the  slope." 

"  The  land  is  too  high  between  the  valleys." 

The  teacher  now  points  to  many  parts  of  the  map, 
and  asks  to  which  valley  each  part  belongs.  The  pupils 
answer  readily  until  the  finger  rests  upon  the  divide,  and 
the  class  is  in  doubt. 

Teacher.  —  "  Can  you  find  other  places  like  this  ?  " 

Eager  fingers  then  trace  the  divide  between  the 
vaileys. 

Teacher.  —  "  To  which  valley  does  this  line  belong?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  It  does  n't  belong  to  either." 

"  It  belongs  to  both." 

"  It  is  just  between  the  valleys." 

"  Both  valleys  begin  at  this  line." 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  47 

Teacher.  —  "  On  which  slope  is  this  line  ?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  It  comes  between  the  slopes.'' 

"  It  is  on  both  slopes." 

"  The  slopes  meet  at  this  line." 

Teacher.  —  "  We  will  call  this  line  a  divide.    Can  you  tell  why?  " 

Pupils.  —  "  Because  it  divides  the  land  into  two  valleys." 

"  Because  it  divides  the  slopes." 

"  It  turns  the  rain  in  two  directions." 

Teacher.  —  "  Open  your  geographies  at  page  9.  Point  to  a 
high  divide  that  has  snow  upon  it.  Point  to  one  on  low  hills. 
Can  you  find  one  on  land  that  is  nearly  level?" 

Notes  on  the  Lesson.  —  It  had  been  carefully 
prepared.  The  teacher  had  a  definite  aim.  The  ques- 
tions were  direct  and  simple.  The  thinking  was  done 
by  the  pupils.  Each  question  was  answered  in  sev- 
eral ways,  showing  that  pupils  were  allowed  time  for 
thought. 

20.    How  Slopes  are  worn. 

To  lead  pupils  to  think  of  the  wasting  away  of  land- 
masses. 

Use  any  piece  of  wood  that  has  begun  to  decay. 

Nearly  every  pebble  taken  out  of  the  soil  shows 
decay.  A  shell  of  soft  stone  surrounds  the  hard 
nucleus.     The  outer  part  has  begun  to  decay. 

Pupils  can  find  many  pieces  of  rock  in  all  stages  of 
decay. 

Look  at  the  ground  under  the  eaves  of  buildings, 
and  see  how  the  rain  has  worked. 

The  "rocky  cliff"  on  page  IT  has  been  cracked  and 
crumbled  by  frost. 


48  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  canyon  (or  canon)  of  the  Colorado,  page  59,  and 
the  gorge  of  Niagara,  page  66,  were  made  by  running 
water. 

21.     Plains. 

To  show  some  ways  in  which  plains  are  formed. 
The  teacher  may  receive  help  from  lesson  6  of  the 
Grammar  School  Geography. 

This  Dakota  grainfield  is  part  of  a  vast  plain  that 
was  at  one  time  the  bed  of  a  lake.  It  is  thought  that 
on  the  north  this  lake  was  shut  in  by  a  mass  of  ice, 
near  the  close  of  the  ice  age. 

In  the  state  of  Idaho  alone  there  are  about  12,000 
square  miles  of  lava  plain,  like  that  in  the  picture.  The 
Shoshone  falls,  page  11,  are  in  this  lava  region.  The  flow 
of  lava  must  have  come  through  long  fissures  or  cracks. 

The  Rhine  flood  plain  is  made  of  soil  brought  down 
by  the  river.  There  are  thousands  of  square  miles  of 
flood  plain  along  the  Mississippi  and  its  branches. 

See  plains  on  pages  37,  62,  70  and  130.  The  Colo- 
rado river,  page  59,  flows  through  a  plateau. 

Show  pupils  how  low  plains  and  plateaus  are  pic- 
tured on  maps,  pages  60-61. 

Give  several  lessons  on  plains. 

22.    Beds  of  Streams. 

To  show  how  streams  wear  their  beds. 

The  Snake  river  in  Idaho  has  worn  away  its  bed  in 
layers  of  lava  and  made  beautiful  falls.  The  cliff 
beyond  the  falls  is  made  of  lava  and  ashes. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  49 

This  ice  jam  is  in  the  Mississippi.  The  mud,  sand 
and  stones  held  by  ice  are  left  in  the  places  where  the 
ice  melts. 

The  portion  of  Niagara  river  that  is  above  the  falls 
flows  on  hard  limestone.  Under  this,  there  is  a  thick 
bed  of  soft  stone  (shale).  The  falling  water  easily 
wears  out  this  shale,  leaving  the  limestone  overhanging 
the  gorge.  From  time  to  time  the  limestone  breaks  off 
and  falls  into  the  gorge.  The  picture  on  page  66 
shows  pieces  of  fallen  rock. 

In  the  little  cut  of  Minnehaha,  pupils  can  see  layers 
of  rock  back  of  the  falls. 

Stones  in  a  river  bed  are  rounded  by  being  rubbed 
together.  After  a  long  time  these  stones  will  be 
ground  to  sand  and  mud.  The  rivers  carry  part  of  this 
rocky  matter  wherever  they  flow. 

23.    Mountains. 

To  teach  types  of  mountains. 

The  pictures  on  page  13  are  as  follows : 

(A)  Peak  of  Pico,  Azores  ;  (B)  Appalachians,  near 
Asheville,  North  Carolina  ;  (C)  Temples  of  the  Virgin, 
Utah  ;  (D)  Mt.  Mitchell,  North  Carolina  ;  (E)  Dolo- 
mite Mts.,  Austria  ;  (F)  The  Needles  and  Black  Head, 
Les  Pres,  France  ;  (G)  Mont  Blanc,  France  ;  (H)  Out- 
lines of  plateau  in  an  Arizona  canyon. 

Page  10  shows  the  Rhine  valley,  ulong  and  deep," 
in  a  plateau.  The  Temples  of  the  Virgin  are  merely 
fragments  of  a  plateau.  The  sharp  points  standing  near 
the  "  mesa  "  were  once  a  part  of  the  mesa  or  plateau. 


50  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

Pico  volcano  shows  plainly  the  cooled  lava.  The 
word  from  which  crater  is  derived  means  a  "  dish  for 
mixing,"  — a  very  apt  name.  It  would  interest  pupils 
to  tell  them  a  story  about  Vulcan,  the  god  of  fire  ;  see 
any  good  book  of  myths.  The  eruption  of  Vesuvius, 
burying  Pompeii,  forms  a  basis  for  a  good  story  ;  see 
page  147  of  the  Grammar  School  Geography. 

Pupils  should  see  pictures  of  types  of  the  low, 
rounded  ranges,  such  as  the  Jura  and  Allegheny,  as 
well  as  types  of  rocky  ranges.  Mt.  Mitchell  is  a  typi- 
cal dome,  and  the  range  pictured  above  it  may  be  taken 
as  a  type  of  low,  rounded  mountains.  The  flowers  that 
show  in  the  picture  of  Mt.  Mitchell  are  the  royal  rho- 
dodendron,, the  glory  of  the  southern  Appalachian 
mountains.  In  places  these  flowers  cover  hundreds  of 
acres. 

See  crests  on  pages  54  and  60-61. 

The  soil  on  steep  slopes  is  generally  poor,  because 
the  finest  part  of  it  is  washed  away  by  rain. 

Study  the  pictures  on  page  13.  Give  several  lessons 
on  mountains. 

24.    Valleys. 

To  show  types  of  valley  forms. 

Do  not  forget  that  the  district  should  be  studied. 

See  pictures  of  valleys  on  pages  6Q,  94  and  102. 
That  on  page  102  is  a  fine  example  of  a  transverse  val- 
ley.    It  crosses  a  range. 

One  of  the  pictures  on  page  14  shows  the  Hayden 
valley,  in  Yellowstone  park.  This  will  serve  to  illus- 
trate a  wide  valley. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  51 

The  canyon  of  the  Colorado  shows  the  cutting  of  a 
river  in  a  dry  region.  The  banks  are  steep,  because 
there  was  not  enough  rain  to  wear  them  very  far  back 
while  the  river  gouged  its  bed. 

In  the  primary  course  it  does  not  seem  best  to  enter 
very  far  into  the  cause  of  shapes,  but  merely  to  show  a 
variety.  The  teacher,  however,  may  be  interested  to  read 
lesson  7  of  the  Grammar  School  Geography. 

Pupils  can  bring  to  school  many  pictures  of  valleys. 

Rain,  streams  and  moist  air  cause  the  sides  of  valleys 
to  waste  away.  The  glacier  melts  as  it  reaches  lower 
and  warmer  levels.     See  glaciers  on  pages  7  and  94. 

The  sand  table  will  aid  greatly  in  the  study  of 
valleys.     Give  several  lessons  on  valleys. 

25.    Shore  Forms. 

To  compare  the  outlines  of  shore  forms. 

Collect  many  pictures  of  shore  forms.  These  should 
show  islands,  capes,  bays,  etc.,  of  many  shapes  and 
sizes.     Have  pupils  draw  some  of  these  shapes. 

As  each  form  is  taught,  show  one  or  more  like  it  on 
a  map. 

Make  one  entire  lesson  on  islands,  another  on 
peninsulas,  etc. 

It  would  be  mere  waste  of  time  to  search  for  differ- 
ences between  bays  and  gulfs  or  seas.  Glance  at  the 
map,  page  24,  showing  the  bay  of  Bengal,  the  gulf  of 
Guinea  and  the  Arabian  sea.  Why  should  one  be 
called  a  gulf  and  another  a  bay  or  a  sea? 

Pupils  can  doubtless  bring  many  excellent  pictures. 


52  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

26.    Work  of  Water  on  Shores. 

To  show  how  coastlines  are  shaped  by  water. 

Gravel  consists  of  small  pebbles,  and  is  often  mixed 
with  sand. 

The  stones  on  the  shore  near  the  clay  cliff  came  from 
the  cliff.  Water  washes  the  clay  from  under  the  stones 
and  they  fall. 

The  loose  earth  at  the  foot  of  the  rocky  cliff  will  in 
time  be  swept  away  by  waves  and  tides. 

The  caves  in  the  middle  cliff  were  made  by  waves. 
Seaweed  protects  shores  from  the  action  of  waves  and 
rolling  stones.  A  coat  of  seaweed  helps  to  prevent 
frost  from  cracking  the  rocks. 

The  picture  marked  "Dunes"  shows  how  sand  has 
been  drifted  by  winds. 

The  Stones  of  Stennis  are  ruins  of  an  old  Druid  tem- 
ple in  Scotland.  The  shore  around  these  stones  is  low 
and  grassy.     Grass  prevents  sand  from  drifting. 

Deep  water  is  needed  in  harbors,  in  order  to  float 
large  ships.     High  shores  help  to  shut  out  strong  winds. 

As  a  rule  the  best  harbors  are  on  rocky  coasts. 
Harbors  on  sandy  coasts  are  apt  to  be  shallow  and 
easily  swept  by  gales. 

Spend  two  or  three  days  on  this  lesson. 

27.     Points  of  the  Compass. 

To  teach  directions. 

Pupils  can  readily  be  led  to  discover  that  the  sun 
does  not  always  rise  in  the  same  place,  but  that  it  rises 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  53 

in  or  near  the  east.  The  sun  is  in  the  south  at  midday, 
and  at  that  time  casts  the  shortest  shadows.  Make  the 
definite  midday  shadow  the  starting-point  for  teaching 
directions. 

Can  pupils  discover  the  difference  in  time  between 
the  midday  and  the  noon  of  railroad  time  ? 

Pupils  should  become  familiar  with  the  directions 
indicated  by  letters  around  the  compass  on  page  18. 

28.    How  Maps  are  made. 

To  show  pupils  how  to  draw  to  a  scale. 

No  teacher  will  make  the  mistake  of  having  pupils 
copy  the  plans  shown  in  this  lesson.  These  plans  are 
intended  to  show  pupils  what  parts  of  their  own  school- 
room, house,  yard  and  district  they  should  draw. 

29.     Reading  Maps. 

To  show  pupils  how  to  read  the  outline  maps  in  their 
geographies. 

A  series  of  maps  leading  out  from  the  pupils'  own 
school  district  would  prove  more  helpful  than  this  series. 

The  class  can  make  original  maps  of  the  parts  of  the 
district  with  which  they  are  familiar. 

Be  sure  that  the  pupils  know  what  the  lines  on  the 
maps  represent.  Each  sign  on  a  map  is  like  a  word  in 
a  sentence.  There  must  be  ideas  behind  the  signs  or 
there  can  be  no  thought.  Map  signs,  like  words,  are 
of  no  use  unless  they  help  to  relate  ideas. 

On  page  118  there  is  a  picture  of  a  New  York  water 
front. 


54  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

30.    Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth. 

To  give  some  idea  of  the  form  and  great  size  of  the 
earth. 

"  If  an  ant  were  placed  on  a  large  balloon,  do  yon 
think  that  to  the  tiny  creature  the  balloon  would  look 
round?"  This  question  may  awaken  thought  on  the 
part  of  pupils. 

Cut  a  very  small  round  hole  in  a  piece  of  cardboard 
and  place  it  against  a  globe  so  that  a  small  part  of  the 
surface  of  the  globe  will  appear  in  the  hole.  This  part 
will  look  level. 

A  common  illustration  is  that  of  a  train  going 
25,000  miles.     Such  a  trip  would  take  about  a  month. 

The  rings  on  the  moon  are  thought  to  be  craters. 

31.    What  a  Hill  is  made  of. 

To  direct  the  thought  to  what  is  beneath  the  surface 
of  the  earth. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  the  thought  that  rocks  are  some- 
times covered  with  clay,  sand  or  water,  as  well  as  with 
gravel. 

The  water  in  the  picture  flows  upon  rock.  Streams 
flow  also,  of  course,  upon  clay,  gravel  or  fine  soil. 

By  shaking  pieces  of  sharp  rock  in  a  bottle,  pupils 
have  found  that  sand  consists  of  little  grains  of  rock. 

If  there  is  no  clay  in  the  school  district,  omit  the 
question,  "  What  is  clay  ? '  Pupils  are  not  expected 
to  tell  the  composition  of  clay,  but  merely  to  tell  some 
of  its  properties  :   when  wet,  it  is  sticky ;  when  molded 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  55 

or  pressed,  it  readily  retains  its  shape ;  when  baked,  it 
becomes  very  hard. 

32.    What  the  Earth  is  made  of. 

To  teach  what  the  earth  is  made  of. 

On  page  29  there  are  four  maps  of  the  earth.  On 
these  globes  the  mountains  are  greatly  exaggerated,  in 
order  that  the  slopes  from  them  may  be  plainly  seen. 

It  is  not  known  whether  the  interior  of  the  earth  is 
in  a  liquid  or  in  a  solid  state.  The  ball  of  rock  may  be 
solid  to  the  center. 

33.    The  Air. 

To  make  pupils  conscious  of  the  presence  of  air  all 
about  them. 

It  is  the  air,  of  course,  that  offers  resistance  to  the 
falling  paper. 

Pure  air  cannot  be  seen,  at  least  in  small  quantities. 
The  blue  color  of  a  clear  sky  is  largely  due  to  the 
presence  of  dust  motes. 

We  can  feel  air  when  in  motion. 

34.    The  Shell  of  Air. 

To  direct  the  thought  to  the  earth  in  its  shell  of 
air. 

In  how  many  ways  can  pupils  prove  that  there  is  air 
about  them  ?  Let  pupils  discuss  these  questions  :  "  Is 
the  air  of  greater  use  when  calm  or  when  in  motion  ? 
When  warm  or  when  cold  ?  " 


56  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

35.    The  Poles. 

To  teach  directions  on  the  globe. 

Guard  against  the  thought  that  there  is  a  line  drawn 
through  the  earth  or  that  there  are  pegs  at  the  poles. 

Try  tossing  a  ball  into  the  air  and  discovering  the 
direction  in  which  its  axis  points  when  turning. 

Pupils  will  be  greatly  interested  in  meeting  the 
teacher  some  evening  to  look  for  the  pointers  and  the 
north  star. 

It  does  not  seem  necessary  to  direct  the  attention  of 
pupils  to  the  fact  that  the  north  star  is  not  exactly  in 
line  with  the  earth's  axis,  or  that  the  axis  itself  is  very 
slowly  changing  its  position.  The  motion  is  so  slow 
that  its  effect  is  not  felt  in  a  lifetime. 

Impress  upon  pupils  that  north  is  toward  the  north 
pole.  When  they  can  tell  the  directions  in  which  all 
the  arrows  on  page  23  are  flying,  there  will  be  no 
difficulty  in  reading  directions  on  all  the  maps  in  the 
geography. 

36.    The  Equator. 

This  lesson  continues  the  work  of  the  preceding. 

Find  the  equator  on  each  of  the  maps  on  page  23. 
Give  thorough  drill  in  reading  the  directions  in  which 
the  arrows  on  the  maps  fly. 

Hold  a  ball  in  the  sun,  and  see  what  part  is  lighted 
by  the  direct  rays. 

At  the  close  of  this  lesson  turn  to  the  colored  maps 
of  the  continents,  and  find  on  them  north,  south,  east 
and  west. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  57 

Review  often  the  work  outlined  on  page  23  of  the 
Elements  of  Geography. 

37.     The  World  Ridge.1 

To  teach  the  simple  unity  in  the  world's  great  high- 
lands. 

A  small  globe  in  the  hands  of  each  pupil  would 
prove  of  great  value.  There  should  be  at  least  one 
globe  in  the  schoolroom. 

Opposite  each  large  relief  map  there  is  a  small  key 
map,  giving  names  that  occur  in  the  text.  Other 
names  can  be  found  on  the  colored  maps  of  the  conti- 
nents.    Show  the  pupils  how  to  use  the  key  maps. 

Train  pupils  to  read  maps.  What  can  they  read 
from  the  map  on  page  24  ?  They  can  find  the  north 
pole  and  the  equator  (see  page  23) ;  they  can  tell  which 
lines  run  north,  south,  east  or  west;  they  can  point  to 
the  land  and  to  the  sea;  they  can  find  the  great  plains 
and  the  plateaus ;  they  can  show  where  the  highest 
divides  run,  and  where  the  great  streams  flow.  Give 
the  pupils  a  chance,  and  they  may  surprise  the  teacher 
with  their  skill  in  reading  maps. 

By  turning  the  book  to  right  and  left,  it  will  be  seen 
that  each  continent  is  but  slightly  distorted.  This  is, 
doubtless,  the  most  accurate  projection  for  making  a 
map  of  the  land  areas. 

We  may  speak  of  the  north  pole  as  being  not  far 
from  the  middle  of  the  world  ridge. 

1  Some  teachers  prefer  the  term  primary  highland. 


58  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

38.     Andes  Highland. 

From  this  time  on  do  not  let  the  pupils  lose  sight 
of  the  unity  of  the  globe  relief.  As  each  new  form  is 
studied,  show  its  position  on  the  relief  map  on  page  24. 

On  page  82  there  is  a  picture  of  a  condor  in  the 
Andes. 

39.     Rocky  Mountain  Highland. 

Look  for  this  highland  on  the  relief  map  of  the 
globe,  page  24. 

Pupils  can  easily  see  that  the  Andes  highland  is 
higher  but  narrower  than  the  Rocky  Mountain  high- 
land. 

There  are  pictures  of  parts  of  the  Rocky  mountains 
on  pages  26  and  56.     See  map  on  pages  60-61. 

40.    Highland  of  Tibet. 

See  picture  on  page  88,  and  map  on  page  86. 
The  longest  plains  of  Asia  are  north  of  Tibet. 

41.    Highland  of  Abyssinia. 

From  Asia  the  world  range  extends  into  Africa.  A 
spur  from  this  great  ridge  enters  Europe,  but  no  part 
of  the  divide  between  the  great  ocean  basins  enters 
that  grand  division. 

The  two  ends  of  the  world  ridge  are  at  cape  Horn 
and  Good  Hope. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  59 

42.    Slopes  from  the  World  Ridge. 

The  Atlantic  slopes  are  on  the  inner  side  of  the 
world  ridge.  The  Pacific  slopes  are  on  the  onter 
side. 

Have  pupils  show  on  the  map,  page  24,  the  long  and 
short  slopes  from  each  of  the  four  great  highlands  in 
the  world  ridge. 

43.    Selvas. 

On  page  85  there  is  a  scene  in  the  selvas. 

The  picture  on  page  27  shows  natives  without  cloth- 
ing. From  this  picture  pupils  can  readily  judge  that 
the  air  of  the  selvas  is  warm. 

Skill  in  reading  pictures  is  of  far  greater  value  than 
mere  memory  of  the  text. 

44.     Central  Plain  of  North  America. 

There  is  a  picture  of  a  grain  field  on  page  62,  and 
of  a  cotton  field  on  page  70. 

The  prairies  are  plains,  but  they  do  not  form  part  of 
the  Western  plains. 

45.    Tundras. 

On  page  88  there  is  a  scene  on  the  tundras. 

The  animals  on  page  90  live  in  great  forests  that 
grow  on  the  plains  north  of  Tibet. 

The  word  tundras  appears  on  the  key  map,  page  25. 
and  also  on  page  89. 


60  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

46.     Desert  of  Sahara. 

On  pages  102,  103  and  160  there  are  pictures  of 
parts  of  the  Sahara. 

Some  parts  of  this  desert  are  covered  with  rocks,  and 
other  parts  with  parched  soil. 

47.    The  Continents. 

The  names  used  in  this  lesson  appear  on  the  maps 
of  the  hemispheres,  page  28.  Have  pupils  show  the 
grand  divisions  on  the  little  globes  pictured  on  pages 
28  and  29. 

See,  also,  map  on  page  24. 

48.    The  Oceans. 

Follow  the  suggestions  given  under  lesson  47. 

Page  34  shows  a  junk  on  the  Pacific.  On  page  44 
there  is  an  Arctic  scene.  There  is  an  Atlantic  steam- 
ship on  page  79. 

The  Pacific  is  the  largest  ocean.  The  Atlantic  is 
next  in  size. 

49.     The  Bottom  of  the  Sea. 

Lead  pupils  to  think  of  a  coastline  as  the  line  where 
the  land  slopes  under  the  sea.  This  line  shows  how 
far  water  rises  on  the  slopes  of  the  grand  divisions. 

The  land  is  being  constantly  worn  by  streams  and 
waves,  while  the  sea  is  ever  sp reading  material  evenly 
over  its  bottom.     The  work  on  the  land  consists  largely 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  61 

of  tearing  down.  The  work  in  the  deep  sea  is  that  of 
building.  Thus  we  see  why  the  bottom  of  the  sea  is 
not  cut  and  gullied  like  the  surface  of  the  land. 

Bring  out  the  thought  that  the  characteristic  appear- 
ance of  the  sea-bottom  is  that  of  a  vast  smooth  plain. 
There  are  broad  plateaus  under  the  sea,  but  they  have 
not  the  appearance  of  land  plateaus  that  have  been 
worn  by  rain. 

Dwell  upon  the  darkness  of  the  deep  sea  and  its 
coldness.  Look  for  pictures  of  fish  peculiar  to  deep 
sea. 

The  shores  of  the  grand  divisions  are  the  feeding 
grounds  of  many  of  the  best  food  fishes.  Waves  churn 
and  help  to  grind  sea  plants,  and  thus  prepare  food  for 
fish. 

50.    Coral  Islands. 

Encourage  pupils  to  collect  specimens  of  coral. 
Look  for  pictures  of  other  coral  islands. 

On  pages  110  and  111  there  are  pictures  and  descrip- 
tions of  breadfruit,  cocoanut  and  banana.  These  are 
the  chief  food  plants  on  many  coral  islands. 

This  lesson  illustrates  the  grinding  power  of  waves. 
It  also  shows  what  becomes  of  part  of  the  land  waste. 

51.     Home  Lesson  for  a  Hot  Day. 

In  some  places  teachers  can  take  their  pupils  out 
into  the  fields  to  study  this  lesson. 

Encourage  as  many  as  possible  to  try  the  experi- 
ments. 


62  ELEMENTS    OF   GEOGRAPHY. 

52.    How  the  Air  is  heated. 

Pupils  that  try  the  experiments  named  in  lesson  51 
will  learn  most  from  lesson  52. 

It  is  thought  that  the  sun's  rays  pass  through  pure 
air  without  heating  it. 

The  leading  thought  of  this  lesson  is  this :  The  sun's 
rays  do  not  heat  the  air  directly,  but  the  surface  of  the 
earth  changes  the  sun's  rays  to  heat,  and  gives  the  heat 
to  the  air.  Clouds  and  dust  help  to  perform  the  same 
work. 

53.    How  the  Earth  is  heated. 

Pupils  should  be  led  to  observe  the  varying  path  of 
the  sun.  Such  work  would  prove  of  far  greater  value 
to  them  than  would  any  text  that  could  be  written. 

Take  for  a  problem  the  question :  At  what  time  of 
year  does  the  sun  shine  the  shortest  distance  into  a  room 
at  midday  f 

If  your  schoolroom  has  no  south  window,  try  the 
experiment  regularly  at  any  hour  of  the  day  when  the 
sun  enters  an  east  or  a  west  window. 

Once  a  week  at  the  appointed  hour  mark  on  the  floor 
the  inner  edge  of  the  sunlight.  This  may  be  done  by 
driving  small  tacks  into  the  floor. 

Suppose  that  the  record  is  begun  in  early  autumn. 
Week  after  week  pupils  can  discover  that  the  sun  runs 
lower  and  lower,  for  its  light  reaches  farther  into  the 
room.  At  length,  in  the  latter  part  of  December,  it 
remains  the  same  for  a  few  days.  Then  the  path  of 
light  becomes  shorter,  and  we   know  that   the   sun   is 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  63 

rising  higher  and  higher  in  the  sky.  In  June  the  sun- 
light reaches  the  same  point  for  several  days,  and  then 
the  shadows  of  objects  begin  to  lengthen. 

The  answer  to  our  question  is :  The  latter  part  of 
June.  This  answer  is  of  very  little  consequence,  un- 
less pupils  have  been  led  to  observe  the  changes  tak- 
ing place  in  nature  during  the  passing  seasons.  They 
can  discover  that  the  path  of  the  sun  determines  each 
season,  and  this  fact  is  the  key  to  the  study  of  how  the 
earth  is  heated. 

Mark  the  shadows  and  study  the  seasons,  and  pupils 
will  easily  comprehend  the  lessons  on  belts  of  heat. 

If  the  above  work  is  done,  the  text  of  this  lesson 
need  not  be  studied. 

Lessons  54  to  57. 

These  lessons  need  occupy  but  little  time.  Most 
teachers  will  doubtless  prefer  not  to  try  to  explain  in 
this  primary  course  the  relation  of  the  earth's  revolu- 
tion on  a  fixed  axis  to  the  changes  of  season.  It  would 
seem  better  to  leave  that  philosophy  for  the  more 
mature  minds  to  grapple. 

Keep  the  work  in  these  lessons  very  simple.  Use 
the  text  for  oral  reading  and  discussion.  Use  a  globe 
to  illustrate  briefly  lesson  36. 

58.    Belts  of  Heat. 

For  the  convenience  of  teachers  that  wish  to  include 
in  this  course  the  study  of  the  zones  of  light,  a  lesson 
has  been  added  in  the  supplement,  page  iii. 


64  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  map  on  page  24  shows  what  river  basins  are 
crossed  by  the  equator. 

The  rivers  that  flow  into  the  Arctic  ocean  are  those 
that  drain  most  of  the  northern  parts  of  Asia,  Europe 
and  North  America.  Pupils  do  not  yet  know  the 
names  of  these  rivers. 

Pupils  need  not  study  the  exact  bounds  of  the  heat 
belts.  It  will  be  sufficient  if  they  learn  which  of  the 
large  river  basins  are  wholly  or  in  part  in  the  various 
belts.  The  questions  in  the  lesson  will  serve  to  direct 
this  study. 

In  the  larger  book  of  this  series  the  lines  of  heat 
will  be  studied.  The  aim  of  this  lesson  is  to  prepare 
the  way  for  the  study  of  plant  belts. 

59.    The  Trade  Winds. 

Within  a  few  years  many  of  the  theories  relating  to 
causes  of  winds  have  been  set  aside.  Ferrel's  work 
has  placed  this  study  on  a  new  footing. 

Pupils  can  easily  be  led  to  discover  the  principle 
of  motion  resulting  from  difference  in  pressure  or 
"  weight,"  but  the  application  of  this  principle  and  of 
Ferrel's  theory  of  the  effect  of  the  earth's  rotation 
seems  to  be  far  beyond  the  grasp  of  primary  pupils. 
The  difficulty  will  be  evident  to  teachers  that  are 
familiar  with  Davis*  Elementary  Meteorology  or  with 
any  other  modern  treatise  on  the  winds. 

It  may  not  be  amiss  to  caution  teachers  not  to  over- 
look the  fact  that  the  polar  regions  are  areas  of  loiv 
pressure,  and  that  the  tropics  of  Cancer  and  Capricorn 
are  in  or  near  belts  of  very  high  pressure. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  65 

Lesson  59,  in  the  Element*  <>f  G-eogr<</>J///,  gives  a 
simple  outline  of  the  more  important  winds,  and  most 
teachers  will  doubtless  be  content  not  to  press  the 
subject  further,   in  the  primary  grades. 

60.     The  Gulf  Stream. 

The  causes  of  ocean  currents  and  their  general  plan 
of  circulation  are  clearly  not  within  the  scope  of  this 
book.  It  has  been  thought  best,  however,  to  treat  of 
two  great  currents,  because  of  their  influence  upon  the 
climate  of  important  countries. 

Find  on  the  maps  all  places  mentioned  in  this  lesson. 

Lessons  61  to  69. 

The  aim  of  these  lessons  is  to  interest  pupils  in  the 
study  of  the  races,  and  to  give  some  knowledge  of  the 
home  life  of  people  in  other  lands. 

The  stories  deal  with  race  characteristics.  Inciden- 
tally, they  introduce  facts  concerning  the  climate,  plants 
and  animals  of  these  lands. 

The  pictures  should  be  studied  very  carefully.  At 
the  end  of  each  lesson  a  few  questions  are  asked.  They 
are  answered  in  the  text  or  in  the  pictures,  and  may 
take  the  place  of  topics. 

The  last  question  under  lesson  65  aims  to  bring  out 
the  thought  that  the  clothing  of  each  race  is  best  suited 
to  the  climate  and  habits  of  that  particular  race. 

Locate  on  the  map  the  scene  of  each  lesson. 


QQ  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

70.    Homes  of  the  Races. 

Study  the  natural  boundaries  of  races  in  the  Old 
World.  Note  that  high  chains  of  mountains  separate 
the  yellow  and  white  races  in  Asia.  Nearly  all  Europe 
belongs  to  the  white  race.  Roughly  speaking,  the 
desert  of  Sahara  divides  the  lands  of  the  white  and  the 
black  races  in  Africa.  The  Malays  and  Indians  are 
often  classed  with  the  yellow  race. 

The  Malays  are  chiefly  an  island  people. 

The  Eskimos  are  classed  with  the  yellow  race.  Peo- 
ple of  the  black  race  are  scattered  along  the  warm 
coasts  of  America.  About  one  tenth  of  the  people  in 
the  United  States  are  Negroes. 

There  are  only  about  250,000  Indians  in  the  United 
States,  but  the  number  of  people  of  this  race  in  Mexico, 
Central  America  and  South  America  runs  far  into 
millions. 

71.    Homes  of  the  Nations. 

Use  this  lesson  for  oral  reading.  It  does  not  need 
close  study. 

A  nation  is  a  large  family. 

Can  the  teacher  name  a  country  that  is  not  wholly 
or  in  part  bounded  by  natural  features?  In  the  study 
of  countries  locate,  as  far  as  possible,  by  natural  features 
which  have  shielded  the  nations. 

With  slight  changes  the  story  in  this  lesson  would 
apply  equally  well  to  the "  Indians  of  America,  to  the 
Negroes  in  Africa,  or  to  any  other  race. 


ELEMENTS    OF   GEOGRAPHY.  67 

72.     Surface  of  North  America. 

See  Preface-note  on  spelling  and  use  of  capital 
letters. 

This  lesson  is  one  of  a  series  of  map  studies.  See 
also  lessons  87,  92,  93,  99  and  105.  These  questions 
are  so  graded  that  when  pupils  reach  lesson  105,  they 
should  know  how  to  read  a  map  without  assistance. 

Teachers  should  not  lose  sight  of  this  grown/*/  power 
to  read  maps,  for  it  is  worth  much  to  pupils. 

Pupils  can  show  on  the  map,  page  24,  what  part  of 
the  world  ridge  is  in  North  America. 

It  will  be  interesting  to  note  what  the  relief  map 
tells  your  pupils.  Will  they  see  that  the  great  high- 
land is  on  the  west  side ;  that  there  is  a  small  highland 
along  the  Atlantic  coast;  that  between  these  highlands 
stretches  a  vast  plain ;  that  the  coastline  is  more  broken 
on  the  north  and  east  than  on  the  west;  that  the  long- 
est rivers  are  east  of  the  great  highland?  Teachers 
may  need  to  ask  a  few  guiding  questions,  but  let  pupils 
do  all  they  can  without  such  help. 

Train  pupils  to  use  the  key  maps. 

The  picture  of  the  globe  on  page  55  is  one  of  a  series 
intended  to  keep  comparative  sizes  and  relative  posit ions 
before  the  eyes  of  the  pupils.  These  globes  show  the 
relative  positions  of  both  land  and  water  areas.  Ask 
questions  leading  pupils  to  study  the  globes.  In  addi- 
tion to  North  America  the  globe  on  page  55  shows 
parts  of  four  other  grand  divisions  and  of  three  oceans. 
These  furnish  a  "setting"  for  North  America. 

In  the  supplement  there  is  a  map  that  will  serve  as  a 


68  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

guide  for  modeling  and  drawing.  Many  teachers  pre- 
fer not  to  have  pupils  model  the  grand  divisions  in  the 
primary  course.  Pupils  can  readily  learn  to  sketch 
these  maps.  Large  maps  modeled  in  sand  by  teachers 
are  of  great  assistance. 

Notice  that  by  folding  down  a  leaf  (65-5G)  pupils  can 
see  both  the  relief  and  the  colored  map  of  this  continent. 
The  same  holds  true  for  each  of  the  other  continents. 


Lessons  73  to  80. 

These  lessons  may  well  be  studied  on  lesson-plans 
3,  2  or  4,  outlined  on  pages  7  to  14  of  this  Manual. 
Instead  of  writing  topics  on  the  blackboard,  the  teacher 
may  direct  pupils  to  use  two,  three  or  more  of  the 
topics  printed  at  the  end  of  lessons  73  to  78.  Lesson- 
plan  3  is  specially  recommended  for  these.  Pupils 
may  make  their  own  topics  for  lessons  79  and  80,  or 
else  follow  lesson-plan  4  or  5,  pages  13-15  M. 

Lead  pupils  to  study  the  pictures.  Use  also  the 
pictures  between  pages  115  and  140. 

Locate  all  features  and  places  on  the  maps.  Use  the 
large  relief  map  of  the  United  States,  pages  60-61,  and 
its  key  map  on  page  63,  or  the  colored  key  map  on 
pages  64-65. 

Ottertail  range  is  part  of  the  Rocky  mountains  in 
Canada,  not  far  from  the  United  States  border. 

These  Mexican  children  live  in  straw  huts,  and  dress 
in  cotton  cloth.  Their  dress  shows  that  the  air  is 
warm.  Lead  pupils  to  think  of  steep  and  rugged  slopes 
among  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  of  the  difficulties  of 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  G9 

travel  in  this  region.  The  donkey,  or  burro,  with  his 
load,  will  form  a  good  subject  for  a  language  lesson. 

Pikes  peak  is  not  far  from  the  city  of  Denver.  See 
map,  page  137. 

Formerly  the  name  was  spelled  Pike's,  but  by  a  rul- 
ing of  the  United  States  Board  on  Geographic  Names 
(Report  of  1892)  the  apostrophe  was  dropped  from  this 
and  all  similar  names  in  the  United  States,  such  as 
St.  Marys  river,  Longs  peak,  Marthas  Vineyard  (see 
Preface). 

The  Mississippi  basin  is  roughly  bounded  as  follows : 
On  the  west  by  the  Rocky  mountains,  on  the  north  by 
the  Height  of  Land  and  a  low  swell  that  runs  south  of 
the  Great  Lakes,  and  on  the  east  by  the  Appalachian 
highland. 

The  word  Height  may  convey  a  wrong  impression  to 
pupils.  The  grain  field  on  page  10  is  near  this  Height, 
and  many  fields  like  this  are  on  the  Height  of  Land. 

The  Welland  canal  joins  lake  Erie  with  lake  Ontario. 
The  change  in  level  between  these  lakes  is  about  800 
feet. 

In  this  elementary  course  it  does  not  seem  desirable 
to  spend  much  time  studying  the  region  north  of  the 
Height  of  Land. 

81.    Heat  and  Rainfall. 

Teachers  are  recommended  to  read  lessons  19,  20, 
21  and  22  of  the  Grammar  School  Geography.  Very 
little  of  the  work  there  mentioned  can  be  given  to 
pupils  using  the  Elements  of  Geography,  except  perhaps 


70  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

the  suggestions  for  observations,  but  the  text  may  help 
to  prepare  teachers  to  explain  some  parts  of  lesson  81 
in  the  Elements  of  Geography,  if  pupils  question  closely. 

Lessons  82  to  90. 

These  lessons  treat  of  the  leading  industries  of  the 
nation.     The  maps  are  based  on  government  reports. 

The  darkest  tint  on  each  map  shows  the  region  of 
greatest  production.  The  aim  should  be  to  fix  in  mind 
the  regions  whose  products  affect  commerce. 

Refer  often  to  the  relief  map  on  pages  60-61. 

Collect  pictures  that  illustrate  these  great  industries. 
In  this  work  pictures  are  of  far  greater  value  than  any 
text  that  can  be  written. 

Ask  pupils  to  bring  specimens  of  products,  and  use 
them  in  giving  the  lessons. 

These  lessons  need  constant  reviews,  in  order  to  fix 
in  mind  the  leading  facts. 

91.    Routes  of  Trade. 

Use  this  lesson  for  oral  reading,  then  let  pupils  dis- 
cuss the  topics  at  the  end  of  these  notes. 

Study  the  pictures.  The  steamship  plies  between 
New  York  and  Liverpool.  This  freight  train  is  cross- 
ing the  Rocky  Mountain  highland.  See  the  snow 
beside  the  tracks. 

The  canal  boats  are  in  the  Erie  canal. 

Some  teachers  may  think  best  to  teach  a  few  of  the 
trunk  lines  of  railroad  across  the  United  States. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  71 

92.     Surface  of  South  America. 

Before  studying  the  map  questions,  see  how  much 
information  pupils  can  get  from  the  study  of  the  relief 
map  itself  ;  then  perhaps  assign  the  map  studies. 

Pupils  will  readily  answer  that  the  middle  part  of  the 
Andes  highland  looks  widest  and  highest. 

On  the  west  slope  of  the  Andes  there  are  no  long 
rivers,  because  the  slope  is  steep  and  short. 

Ask  questions  leading  pupils  to  study  the  globes.  In 
addition  to  South  America  the  globe  on  page  81  shows 
parts  of  three  other  grand  divisions  and  of  four  oceans. 
These  furnish  a  "  setting  "  for  South  America. 

Compare  the  two  globes  on  pages  55  and  81,  and  tell 
which  is  the  larger,  South  America  or  North  America. 

See  supplement,  for  guide  maps  for  drawing  and 
modeling.  These  maps  show  also  the  comparative 
areas. 

Lessons  93  to  97. 

Read  first  three  paragraphs  of  suggestions  under  les- 
sons 73  to  80,  preceding. 

The  pictures  on  page  112  show  some  of  the  animals 
of  the  Amazon  valley. 

The  lily  in  the  picture  on  page  85  is  the  Victoria 
regia.  The  stork  is  standing  on  a  lily  leaf.  Note  how 
the  edges  of  the  leaf  are  turned  up. 

A  great  deal  of  Brazilian  coffee  goes  under  other 
foreign  names.  Most  of  the  coffee  used  in  this  country 
is  raised  in  Brazil.  Comparatively  little  comes  to  the 
United  States  from  Java. 


72  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

This  story  teaches  that  the  climate  of  Brazil  is  warm 
and  moist. 

Notice  the  blossoms  and  berries  together  on  a  sprig 
of  coffee.  This  growth  is  characteristic  of  the  coffee 
tree. 

The  general  slope  of  the  Plata  basin  is  towards  the 
south. 

Rio  de  la  Plata  means  river  of  silver. 

The  basin  of  the  Amazon  is  about  twice  as  large  as 
that  of  the  Plata.  See  tables  of  statistics  in  the  sup- 
plement. A  part  of  the  highland  of  Brazil  divides 
these  basins. 

98.    Surface  of  Asia. 

Read  suggestions  under  lesson  72,  preceding.  Do 
not  forget  to  lead  pupils  to  read  the  relief  map  itself, 
before  studying  the  map  questions. 

The  longest  slope  is  north  of  Tibet. 

For  directions,  refer  to  maps  on  page  23. 

What  continents  appear  on  the  little  globe  on 
page   87  ? 

The  model  map  of  Asia  is  in  the  supplement. 

Lessons  99  to  104. 

Read  the  first  three  paragraphs  of  suggestions  under 
lessons  73  to  80,  preceding. 

Refer  constantly  to  relief  and  political  maps.  Study 
the  pictures. 

Study  the  picture  on  page  88.     Mt.  Dunkia  is  in  the 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  73 

Himalayas,  north  of  Calcutta.  This  peak  is  about  four 
miles  and  a  half  in  height. 

The  natives  in  the  picture  of  the  tundras  are  Sam- 
oyedes.  They  belong  to  the  yellow  race.  What  docs 
the  picture  show  about  their  habits  ? 

The  Ganges  is  the  sacred  river  of  India. 

Pupils  can  draw  the  tea  plant  forming  the  decoration 
of  the  round  picture  on  page  90.  What  can  they  find 
out  about  the  beaver?  The  picture  on  page  91  shows 
a  typical  Hindu  village  near  Calcutta. 

105.    Surface  of  Europe. 

Read  suggestions  under  lesson  72,  preceding. 

Are  pupils  learning  to  read  maps?  Ask  guiding 
questions,  if  necessary. 

Europe  is  on  the  inner  side  of  the  world  ridge. 

What  grand  divisions  and  oceans  are  shown  on  the 
globe,  page  93  ?  Compare  the  area  of  Europe  with  that 
of  each  of  the  other  grand  divisions  studied.  See  little 
globes. 

The  model  map  of  Europe  is  in  the  supplement. 

Lessons  106  to  110. 

Read  the  first  three  paragraphs  under  lessons  73  to 
80,  preceding. 

By  this  time  the  pupils  should  be  thoroughly  familiar 
with  the  use  of  topics,  and  should  know  just  how  to  go 
to  work  on  a  new  lesson.  All  places  and  features 
should  be   located. 


74  '  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

On  page  13  there  are  two  views  of  the  Alps,  —  Mt. 
Blanc  (G)  and  the  peaks  near  Les  Pres,  France  (F). 
Mt.  Blanc  is  in  France. 

The  highest  peak  in  Europe  is  Elburz,  in  the  Cau- 
casus range. 

Study  the  pictures  on  page  94.  The  Rhine  view 
shows  the  famous  vineyards  opposite  Bingen.  At  the 
top  of  the  bluff,  or  palisade,  may  be  seen  the  great 
Germania  monument. 

The  long  glacier  on  page  94  is  the  Viesch  glacier. 
The  medial  moraine  is  very  clearly  shown. 

111.     Surface  of  Africa. 

Read  suggestions  under  lesson  72,  preceding. 

Do  not  neglect  the  world  ridge  map,  page  24. 

Can  pupils  read  the  relief  map  of  Africa  without 
assistance  ? 

Have  pupils  learned  how  to  read  the  little 
globes  ? 

What  can  they  read  on  the  globe  map,  page  99  ? 

The  model  map  of  Africa  is  in  the  supplement. 
Compare  model  maps  and  see  how  continents  compare 
in  area. 

Lessons  112  to  117. 

Read  the  first  three  paragraphs  under  lessons  73  to 
80,  preceding. 

Study  the  maps  and  pictures.  The  Suez  canal  has 
no  locks.  This  great  ditch  is  about  one  hundred  miles 
in  length. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  75 

The  Nile  view  shows  the  landing  place  at  Assouan. 
Several  caravan  routes  lead  to  this  place,  because  there 
are  no  cataracts  in  the  river  below. 

The  scene  in  the  Atlas  mountains  (page  102)  shows 
a  Moorish  town,  and  a  fine  example  of  a  valley  worn 
through  a  mountain  range. 

The  pictures  of  the  Nile,  page  103,  were  taken  near 
Cairo,  looking  towards  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh.  The 
nearest  of  the  three  pyramids  is  the  famous  Cheops. 

118.    Australasia. 

Pupils  should  by  this  time  have  learned  to  describe  a 
relief  map  fairly  well,  without  using  the  map  questions. 
As  this  is  the  last  of  the  continents  to  be  studied  in 
relief,  it  might  be  well  to  ask  for  a  written  description 
of  the  surface,  to  test  each  pupil's  power  to  read  such  a 
map. 

The  position  of  Australia,  relative  to  the  world  ridge, 
is  shown  on  the  key  map,  page  25.  See  also  map  on 
page  28.  This  continent  is  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
great  ridge.  For  comparative  areas,  see  the  model  maps 
in  the  supplement.     Compare  globe  maps  also. 

Lessons  119  to  121. 

Use  maps  and  pictures.  Locate  places  and  features. 
The  eucalyptus  shown  on  page  106  is  a  typical  Aus- 
tralian tree,  though  it  now  grows  abundantly  in  Cali- 
fornia and  other  western  states.  The  tree  sheds  its 
bark,  instead  of  its  leaves. 


76  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

Locate  the  Solomon  islands,  east  of  New  Guinea. 
Samoa  is  still  farther  out  in  the  Pacific. 

These  hot  springs  of  New  Zealand  are  known  as  the 
"white  terraces."     They  have  been  partly  destroyed. 

Before  passing  to  lesson  122,  two  or  three  valuable 
review  lessons  may  be  given,  looking  especially  to  the 
comparison  of  features.  In  one  lesson  the  continents 
and  oceans,  as  to  sizes  and  shapes  ;  the  plateaus ;  the 
plains ;  the  great  rivers,  as  to  length  and  direction,  etc. 

122.    Where  Plants  grow. 

The  aim  is  to  direct  the  thought  to  the  relation  of 
plants  to  soil,  water  and  heat.  This  will  help  pupils 
to  understand  the  distribution  of  plants. 

Modify  the  questions  in  this  lesson  to  suit  the  plants 
that  grow  near  the  schoolhouse.  The  purpose  is  to 
direct  the  thought  to  conditions  of  plant  life. 

123.    Plants  of  the  Hot  Belt. 

Study  the  pictures  under  this  lesson.  See  also  the 
Hot  Belt  on  page  111,  and  the  pictures  on  pages  23,  81 
and  85.     See  map  on  page  33.     Collect  spices. 

124.    Plants  of  the  Warm  Belts. 

See  the  pictures  on  pages  69,  70  and  90. 
Interesting  language   lessons  may  be  given  on  the 
products  of  these  belts.     Refer  to  map  on  page  33. 


ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY.  77 

125.     Plants  of  the  Cool  Belts. 

Find  on  the  map,  page  83,  the  cool  belt  of  the  south. 
A  glance  will  show  that  it  is  scarcely  worth  notice. 
See  pictures  on  pages  72,  73,  74  and  1 11. 

126.     Plants  of  the  Cold  Belt. 

The  cold  belt  of  the  south  calls  for  but  slight  notice. 
See  pictures  on  pages  43,  44  and  111. 
For  the  food  of  the  reindeer,  see  page  42. 

127.     Structure  of  Animals. 

The  aim  of  this  lesson  is  to  show  how  animals  are 
fitted  to  their  habitats  or  native  haunts.  Study  a  few 
of  the  common  animals  and  discover  their  peculiarities. 
Note  their  habits,  and  discover  the  relation  of  their 
structure  to  these  habits. 

The  pictures  on  page  114  may  suggest  a  line  of  study. 

128.  Animals  of  the  Heat  Belts. 

Lesson  128  aims  to  show  the  distribution  of  a  few 
of  the  largest  and  most  familiar  animals.  Notice  the 
coastlines  in  the  picture.  Pupils  will  be  deeply  inter- 
ested in  collecting  pictures  and  stories  of  animals. 

129.  Animals  and  Their  Homes. 

The  text  of  this  lesson  touches  upon  the  structure  of 
animals,  their  means  of  defense,  etc. 

Pupils  can  doubtless  give  many  other  illustrations  of 
each  of  these  topics.  The  pictures  on  pages  112  and 
113  will  suggest  many  interesting  stories. 


78  ELEMENTS    OF    GEOGRAPHY. 

130.     Uses  of  Plants  and  Animals. 

Use  the  questions  for  oral  or  written  language  lessons. 

Lessons  131  to  146. 

From  this  part  of  the  geography  to  the  end,  the  text 
of  the  various  lessons  follows  the  same  general  plan, 
namely,  the  study  of  groups  of  states,  of  cities  and  of 
countries,  from  the  standpoint  of  industries  and  matters 
of  special  importance.  Perhaps  the  best  topics  that 
can  be  used  are  the  names  of  cities  printed  in  heavy- 
face  type,  as  Boston,  and  names  of  countries  printed  in 
capital  letters,  as  Germany. 

It  is  perhaps  needless  to  seek  further  to  impress  upon 
teachers  the  great  value  of  constant  reference  to  the 
maps.  The  pupils  should  locate  every  city,  trying  if 
possible  to  state  its  position  near  some  natural  feature 
which  affects  its  industries,  as  New  York,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Hudson  ;  Chicago,  on  lake  Michigan. 

In  beginning  the  study  of  any  section  or  country, 
make  use  of  the  old  to  help  build  the  new  ;  that  is, 
review  briefly  the  surface,  climate,  leading  industries, 
etc.,  and  let  the  study  lead  as  far  as  possible  to  the 
reasons  for  the   growth  of  the  city,  state  or  country. 

In  many  cities  and  towns  the  school  officers  or  the 
teachers  may  not  deem  it  necessary  to  study  in  detail 
every  city  named  in  the  text;  but  if  selection  is  made 
of  leading  cities  to  receive  close  study,  it  is  suggested 
that  the  locations  of  the  others  be  learned. 


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